موضوع: "بدون موضوع"
این پژوهش ساختار و شکل گیری فردیت اجتماعی را درگلچینی از داستان های کوتاه کرت وانگات بررسی میکند.در این رابطه٬ پژوهش گر بر آن شد تا از تئوری پست مدرن ژان فرانسوا لیوتارد برای بررسی نظام قدرتمند اقتصادی عصر پست مدرن سود جوید. در واقع٬ لیوتارد و دیگر فیلسوفان برجسته مکتب پست مدرن بر این باورند که انسان به شدت تحت تاثیر سلطه نظام سرمایه داری است. در تئوری پست مدرن انسان به عنوان موجودی وابسته٬ متغیر٬ پذیرنده و منفعل تعریف شده است. او یک جزء کوچک در نظام جهانی سرمایه داری است که منافع آن از طریق بهره کشی از انسان ها تامین میشود. پژوهش گر تئوری لیوتارد را بر داستانهای کوتاه تاناسفر٬ مجموعه٬ شهر غنی کوچک فقیر٬ سوقاتی٬ سفر جالی راجرز٬ عروس سفارشی و 2ب ر20ب از مجموعه داستان انفیه دان باگومبو پیاده کرد. همه داستان های کوتاه فضای اجتماعی پس از جنگ جهانی دوم که با شکوفایی اقتصاد سرمایه داری جهانی همراه بود را روایت میکنند. پژوهش گر به این نتیجه دست یافت که در داستان های کوتاه انتخاب شده سرمایه داری فراصنعتی نهادها و ابزارهای اجتماعی مشروعی چون دانش و واقعیت را تولید میکند و با استفاده از آن ها رفتار هنجاری٬ معیارها و ارزش های رایج را در متن جامعه به اجرا میگذارد. سرمایه داری فعالیت های اجتماعی را با فرآیندهای هم جنس سازی و همگانی سازی اداره میکند؛ بنابراین٬ برای مسیردهی به برهم کنش های اجتماعی بازی های زبانی و کلان روایت ها را تولید میکند. علاوه بر آن٬ فردیت اجتماعی محصول نظام قدرت است. خود اجنماعی پست مدرن در ارتباطات شکل میگیرد. او به طرز اجتناب ناپذیری متاثر از شرکت در فعالیت های اجتماعی مشروع است. او ناگزیر از فراگیری گونه های مشروع گفتمان برای ایفای نقش کارآمد است. از این رو در خلال فعالیت های اجتماعی او به طور تدریجی به سمتی که در جهت منافع قدرت است هدایت میشود.
واژگان کلیدی: سرمایه داری٬ قدرت٬ بازی زبانی٬ کلان روایت٬ فردیت اجتماعی٬ قابلیت اجرایی
Table of Contents
Abstract
Dedication
Acknowledgement
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1. General Background
1.2. The Argument
1.2.1. Research Questions
1.3. Literature Review
1.4. Thesis Outline
1.5. Methodology and Approach
1.6. Motivation and Delimitation
1.7. Definition of Key Terms
Chapter 2: The Postmodern Theory of Jean-François Lyotard
2.1. Jean-François Lyotard
2.2. The Postmodernist Movement
2.3. Early Marxist Activities
2.4. The Pragmatics of Knowledge
2.5. Modern Criteria of Legitimation
2.6. Postmodern Criteria of Legitimation
2.7. The development of Capitalist System
2.8. The Semiotics and the Linguistic Based Culture
2.9. The Postmodern Self (Social Subject)
2.10. The Complementary Approaches of Baudrillard and Foucault
Chapter 3: Language Games
3.1. Studying Capitalism, Power, Language Game and Reality in “Thanasphere”
3.1.1 Synopsis
3.1.2 Commentary
3.2. Studying Capitalism, Reality, Language Game and Power in “Souvenir”
3.2.1 Synopsis
3.2.2 Commentary
3.3. Studying Language Game, Power, Capitalism and Alienation in “The Cruise
of the Jolly Roger”
3.3.1 Synopsis
3.3.2 Commentary
3.4. Studying Capitalism, Disciplinary Power, Language Game and Reality in
“2BR02B”
3.4.1 Synopsis
3.4.2 Commentary
Chapter 4: Grand Narratives
4.1. Studying Grand Narrative, Capitalism and Social Class in “The Package”
4.1.1 Synopsis
4.1.2 Commentary
4.2. Studying Grand Narrative, Capitalism and Performativity in “Poor Little Rich
Town”
4.2.1. Synopsis
4.2.2. Commentary
4.3. Studying Grand Narrative, Capitalism and Commodity in “Custom-Made
Bride”
4.3.1. Synopsis
4.3.2. Commentary
Chapter 5: Conclusion
5.1. Summary
5.2. Findings
5.3. Suggestions for Further Research
Works Cited
Chapter One
Introduction
1.1. General Background
Kurt Vonnegut, Jr. (1922-2007) is renowned as a prominent American novelist and essayist. Vonnegut was one of the celebrated writers of post-World War ΙΙ in American literature. He defined himself as an atheist, agnostic and freethinker. The significant characteristic of his writing career is that for the most part in his works he combined satiric social observation and black comedy; also, he utilized surrealist and imaginary elements.
Several of his novels included science fiction themes. Actually, Vonnegut made use of the elements of science fiction and metafiction to direct the reader’s attention to the more serious issues associated with ethics and politics. His simple writing style is deceptive since it misleads the reader from perceiving the tense and unspeakable agony of the individual’s life in the twentieth century.
As a postmodern writer, in his writing Vonnegut employs some specific features; that is, the disorder in the narrative events and disruption of time or mixing past, present and future, blending of different genres, drawing the pictures, symbols or designs in the text, vicious circles and paranoia. In his works the limerick, humorous and jokes are entangled to narrate the serious facts that are really happened in Vonnegut’s lifetime.
The crucial event in Vonnegut’s life which had a profound influence on him and consequently on his writing career could be the firebombing of Dresden, Germany, by Allied armies in 1945, a horrifying happening he witnessed personally as a young captive of war. His understanding in Dresden laid the grounds for his greatest novel Slaughterhouse-Five published in 1969 as an obvious attack on the terrors of war in Vietnam, racial turmoil and cultural and social cataclysm.
Accordingly, there is linkage between Vonnegut’s life and works. War, genocide, environmental determinism, atomic bomb and technological advancement were all engendered in the postmodern epoch. He disapproved the technological science and the political economy. Common themes in Vonnegut’s works consist of the dehumanization resulted by the improvement of technology, Sexuality, fierceness, hopelessness, bewilderment, alienation, insecurity and depression.
Vonnegut was a humanist. He maintained that in the postmodern era the human being is a hapless, lonely, bewildered and desperate victim; he is robbed of his identity and integrity to transform to a totally dependent social subject. In an alien world organized by machines, the individual tries to cope with the forces beyond his control. In his novels Vonnegut compassionately praised the characters who refuse to surrender to despair and defeat.
Vonnegut’s remarkable works are Player Piano (1952), Sirens of Titan (1959), Cat’s Cradle (1963), Slaughterhouse-Five (1969), and Breakfast of Champions (1973). Galápagos (1985), Bluebeard (1987), Hocus Pocus (1990) and Timequake (1997). On the Whole, Vonnegut is the author of 14 novels and nearly 50 short stories, in addition to plentiful essays, autobiographical pieces, and plays. A number of his works have been transformed into television or film-as an adaptations- and he caused distinction to some of these with cameo role appearances.
This research is going to concentrate on seven short stories written by Vonnegut in the collection, Bagombo Snuff Box. The researcher chose to work on “Thanasphere”, “The Package”, “Poor Little Rich Town”, “Souvenir”, “The Cruise of the Jolly Roger”, “Custom-Made Bride”, and “2BR02B”. In these short stories the postmodern world after the Second World War- is depicted. The concepts which impact on the constitution and formation of the social subject in the postmodern philosophy of Jean-François Lyotard (1925-98) will be discussed by the researcher.
From the above-mentioned fictions, “Thanasphere” and “2BR02B” narrate the circumstances in advanced societies regulated by the technological knowledge. “Souvenir” and “The Cruise of Jolly Roger” deal with the events of World War ΙΙ straightforwardly. “The Package”, “Poor Little Rich Town” and “Custom-Made Bride” depict the social milieu in the American capitalist system. What inspired the researcher to undertake this study is that the entire short stories illustrate the helpless individuals entangled in the coercive environment caused by global capitalism.
In “Thanasphere”, Vonnegut shatters the borderline between the living and dead. He questions the legitimacy of the scientific knowledge since in the capitalist system this form of knowledge is deemed as ubiquitous and infallible; however, in the story some unexpected events take place that cannot be subsumed within the scientific knowledge. It happens that an astronaut as a player deviates the rules of the dominant language game as he communicates with the ghosts of the dead.
The researcher focuses on the reaction of the characters toward this so called illegitimate move of the astronaut; that the people in authority easily condemn him to be inefficient; therefore, they call him idiot and ignore him. Also, the nature of reality or truth in the postmodern world is going to be analyzed by the researcher since in this story the heads of power hide the new discovery and publicize a make-believe reality in order to maintain their legitimacy.
“2BR02B” narrates the far future where there is a boom in the science of medicine. The population of earth has increased enormously because the technology of health care has improved considerably; so that the dangers threatening physical health and soundness have been eradicated entirely. Government exerts strict control on the population. It even encourages people to die voluntarily and make room for others. Likewise, the nature of power in the postmodern period will be analyzed. The individuals in the story challenge a disciplinary kind of power system which invades the very personal territories of the citizens. It advocates suicide and self-sacrificing as a value practiced by the efficient social subject.
“Souvenir” narrates the bewilderment of language games in the wartime and how by the shift of power the dominant language game of German Nazi loses its legitimacy; hence, the individual experiences the contradicting situation in which the proficiency as a value fluctuates constantly. Duo to the improvement of technology, the production of the military machines brings about mass destruction and annihilation of the human being. The soldiers are the defenseless victims of the absurd war. Vonnegut pinpoints to the irrationality of the war when in the story on the day that the war ended still the soldiers were killed by the military vehicles.
“The Cruise of the Jolly Roger” also deals with the post-war circumstances. In this fiction the researcher foregrounds the disparity between the two dissimilar language games practiced in the army and in the public. It portrays the life of a retired army officer who leaves the army where he reckoned as his home; accordingly, the veteran faces the unknown civilian world where he was far from for many years. Encountering the new civil society,
he experiences a deep feeling of estrangement and detachment.
The protagonist desperately identifies himself as an inefficient civilian among others whose language game he is strange to. In many places of this short story, Vonnegut implies the sense of alienation experienced by many veterans of the Second World War. Once being a veteran of the same war, he became familiar with the suffering; consequently, he could vividly narrate the situation of the soldiers who survived the war and came back home as an outsider who had difficulty conforming to the new setting.
The story in “The Package” revolves around the wealthy and extravagant life style of the Americans. After the Second World War America succeeded in achieving the global economic dominance thanks to the technological advancement; therefore, the American society experienced the higher standards of living. It transformed to a rich and consumer society. The amalgamation of the social strata and the mixture of high culture and low culture advocated by the postmodernists facilitated the process.
“The Package” portrays one day in life of a nouveau-rich couple whom tries to fix themselves to their social class. They try to emulate the language game of the affluent class but they cannot perform efficiently; for that reason, they get upset. Vonnegut in this short story indicates the absurd economic-based life in the capitalist society according to which the value of the individual is estimated by the objects and materials that he possesses.
“The Poor Little Rich Town” narrates the traditional life style in a village which is disturbed when the perverted technological progress comes in. Apparently, in this story Vonnegut indirectly alludes to the post-industrial capitalism that swept the world after the Second World War. The global economy subjected the other countries in the world to its homogenizing policy. Likewise, the story contrasts the pre-modern (primitive) and modern culture.
Lyotard and other postmodernist philosophers condemned modernity and lauded the premodern or primitive communities. The researcher studies how in “The Poor Little Rich Town” the arrival of progress degrades the former social bond and the individuals nearly lose their custom and background owning to the fact that they are regarded as no longer legitimated. The new system harms the social relations, warmth and friendship as well; instead, it engenders animosity and distance.
“Custom-Made Bride” deals with the objectification of the human being in the economic-based system of capitalism. The researcher studies one of the grand narratives legitimated by the capitalist system; that is fashion. In the system of production the social subject is personalized to follow the fashion. In such society the individual must be up-to-date; as a consequence, he consumes more and more product.
The story narrates the life of a genius and artist who represents postmodern aesthetic taste. He designs his wife according to the latest fashion but he pays no attention to her feelings and opinions. The woman at last protests to her subjection in view of the fact that her identity is lost; she is degraded to function as a pleasure commodity. The events in the story stand for the condition of the social subject in the capitalist system that is personalized to serve the interests of the market-driven economy.
با پیشرفت سریع فناوری و ظهور نسل جدیدی از بسته های نرم افزاری رایانه ای، بررسی بیشتر این مقوله در حوزه ی یادگیری و تدریس زبان انگلیسی منطقی به نظر می رسد. بدین منظور، پژوهش حاضر به ارزیابی دیدگاه زبان آموزان نسبت به برنامه ای خودخوان با استفاده از دو نرم افزار آموزش زبان به نام های رزتا استون (Rosetta Stone) و تل می مور (Tell Me More) پرداخت. شصت شرکت کننده در سطح مقدماتی زبان انگلیسی به طور تصادفی از یک دبیرستان غیر دولتی انتخاب شدند. سپس شرکت کنندگان به دو گروه تقسیم شدند و هر کدام با یکی از بسته های نرم افزاری که پیش تر ذکر شد به یادگیری زبان انگلیسی پرداختند. آنها طی یک دوره ی سه هفته ای از نرم افزارها استفاده کردند. پس از آن، از آنها خواسته شد تا پرسشنامه ای را که به صورت لیکرت تنظیم شده، در مورد تجربه یادگیری شان تکمیل نمایند. این پرسشنامه ی بیست و هفت آیتمی دیدگاه شرکت کنندگان را نسبت به این نوع برنامه ی خودخوان نشان می داد. اطلاعات جمع آوری شده بر اساس آمار توصیفی و استنباطی تحلیل شد. بر اساس آمار توصیفی، یافته ها نشان داد که دیدگاه شرکت کنندگان نسبت به هر کدام از گزینه ها متفاوت بوده با این حال برای اکثر گزینه ها از جمله تمایل زبان آموزان نسبت به یک برنامه ی خودخوان، دیدگاه شان نسبت به ویژگی گرافیک بسته ها ی نرم افزاری، سیستم تشخیص صدا، سهولت استفاده از نظر مهارت های پایه ای و غیره دیدگاه مثبتی نسبت به هر کدام از بسته های نرم افزاری داشتند. به علاوه، آزمون من ویتنی یو (Mann Whitney U ) نشان داد که از لحاظ آماری، تفاوت آماری معناداری بین زبان آموزان از نظر دیدگاه شان نسبت به بسته های نرم افزاری آموزش زبان وجود ندارد.
کلید واژه ها: یادگیری زبان به کمک کامپیوتر، دیدگاه زبان آموزان، بسته های نرم افزاری، انگلیسی به عنوان یک زبان بیگانه
Table of Content
Title Page
Abstract………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 1
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.0: Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2
1.0.1: Software packages to be investigated in the present study………………………………….. 4
1.1: Theoretical Framework………………………………………………………………………………………….. 5
1.2: Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………………. 6
1.3: Significance of the Study………………………………………………………………………………………. 7
1.3.1. Merits of the integration of technology in English language education………………. 8
1.3.2. Drawbacks of the integration of technology in English language education……….. 9
1.4: Research Questions……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 9
1.5: Research Hypotheses…………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
1.6: Definitions of Key Terms…………………………………………………………………………………….. 10
1.7: Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 10
Chapter 2: Review of the Literature
2.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
2.1. Autonomy and Self-study Programs…………………………………………………………………….. 11
2.2. Language Training Software Packages…………………………………………………………………. 12
2.3. Assessing Attitude, Belief, Perception and Motivation in CALL………………………….. 13
2.4. Online vs. Traditional Way of Language Learning………………………………………………. 23
2.5. Barriers to the Integration of CALL……………………………………………………………………… 25
2.6. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 26
Chapter 3: Methodology
3.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
3.1. The Design of the Study………………………………………………………………………………………. 27
3.2. Participants………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
3.3. Materials and Instruments……………………………………………………………………………………. 28
3.3.1. Placement Test………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 28
3.3.2. Questionnaire……………………………………………………………………………………………………. 29
3.3.3. Software Packages…………………………………………………………………………………………….. 29
3.4. Procedure…………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 31
3.5. Methods of Analyzing the Data……………………………………………………………………………. 32
3.6. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 33
Chapter 4: Results
4.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 34
4.1. The Results of the Reliability Analyses of the OPT test and Attitude Questionnaire (Pilot Study)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
4.2. The Results of OPT Test for the Sampling Purpose………………………………………………. 36
4.3. Descriptive Statistics for the Items of the Attitude Questionnaire……………………….. 38
4.4. Inferential Statistics for the Attitude Questionnaire…………………………………………….. 57
4.5. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 60
Chapter 5: Discussion
5.0. Introduction…………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 61
5.1. General Discussion……………………………………………………………………………………………… 61
5.2. Implications of the Study…………………………………………………………………………………….. 68
5.3. Limitations of the Study………………………………………………………………………………………. 68
5.4. Suggestions for further Research…………………………………………………………………………. 69
5.5. Summary……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 69
References………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 70
Appendices………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 80
List of Tables
Table Pages
Table 4.1: Reliability Statistics for the OPT test…………………………………………………………. 35
Table 4.2: Suggested Standards (Adopted From Barker, Pistrang, and Elliott, 1994…… 36
Table 4.3: Statistics For the OPT Test…………………………………………………………………………. 37
Table 4.4: Item Statistics for the for the Attitude Questionnaire…………………………………. 38
Table 4.5: Item 1: Learning A Language Using Computer Software Was An Interesting Experience…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
Table 4.6: Item 2: Language learning May be Important to My Goals, But I Do not Expect It to be Much Fun…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 41
Table 4.7: Item 3: It Is Easier to Learn A Language at Home without Classroom Pressure 42
Table 4.8: Item 4: I Worry a Lot About Making Mistakes in Classroom……………………… 43
Table 4.9: Item 5:I Think Working at Home; Using Rosetta StoneTell me more Is More of a Computer Game than a Serious Instruction…………………………………………………………………………………. 43
Table 4.10: Item 6: I have found that classroom attendance is not the only way to learn a language…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 44
Table 4.11: Item 7: I would like to learn English, provided I allocate flexible time per week 45
Table 4.12: Item 8: I Will Recommend Rosetta Stone/TELL ME MORE to My Friends. 45
Table 4.13: Item: 9 I would like to learn English through videos, photos, and graphics not just studying textbooks……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 46
Table 4.14: Item 10: Learning with Computers Offers More Advantages over Traditional Methods of Language Education…………………………………………………………………………………………………… 46
Table 4.15: Item 11: Computers Are Useful for Language Learning…………………………… 47
Table 4.16:Item 12: I Have No Difficulty in Operating the Basic Functions of Computers as far as Language-Learning Software Is Concerned………………………………………………………………… 47
Table 4.17: Item 13: Computers Have Proved to be Effective Learning Tools Worldwide 48
Table 4.18: Item 14: Students Prefer Learning from Teachers to Learning from Computers 49
Table 4.19: Item 15: I Think I Could Spend More Time Practicing Skills (Listening, Speaking, Reading and Writing) Using Rosetta StoneTell me more…………………………………………………………. 49
Table 4.20: Item 16: I Prefer to Learn English through Rosetta StoneTell me more Because I Can Adjust My Own Speed of Learning…………………………………………………………………………….. 50
Table 4.21: Item 17: I Would Rather Take A Formal Course Than A Self-Study Program 51
Table 4.22: Item 18: Rosetta Stone/Tell me more Is So User-Friendly. It Is Quite Convenient for Me as an Ordinary Computer User……………………………………………………………………………………. 51
Table 4.23: Item 19: I Enjoyed the Lessons of Rosetta StoneTell Me More……………….. 52
Table 4.24: Item 20: I Think Speech Recognition System in Rosetta StoneTELL ME MORE Can Help You Sound Like a Native Speaker………………………………………………………………………………. 53
Table 4.25: Item 21: It Gradually Becomes Boring Working with Rosetta StoneTell me more 53
Table 4.26: Item 22: It Is Important to Practice Prefabricated Conversation but There Is Not Such a Thing in Rosetta StoneTell me more………………………………………………………………………….. 54
Table 4.27: Item 23: The Speech Recognition System In Rosetta StoneTell me more Is Very Complicated. I Cannot Adjust My Tone to That of the Native Speaker’s……………………. 54
Table 4.28: Item 24: It Is a Good Idea to Use Rosetta StoneTell me more but not as the Main Source of Education……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 55
Table 4.29: Item 25: Diverse and Colorful Photos Used in Rosetta StoneTell me more Have Enormous Appeal………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 56
Table 4.30: Item 26: If I Cannot Pursue a Formal Course In English, Anyway I Prefer to Use Rosetta StoneTell me more…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 56
Table 4.31: Item 27: I Cannot Imagine How Exciting It Was to Practice at Home Using Rosetta StoneTell me more…………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 57
Table 4.32: Ranks of group (A) and (B) for their Attitudes………………………………………… 58
Table 4.33: Mann Whitney U Test for EFL learners’ Attitudes towards the Packages…. 58
List of Figures
Figure Page
Figure 4.1 the Comparison between Groups (A) And (B) With Respect To Their Attitudes towards the Two Language Learning Packages (“Tell Me More” and “Rosetta Stone”)………………….. 58
Abstract
With the rapid advancement of technology and the outbreak of the new generation of computer software packages, it seems plausible to shed more light on this issue in the realm of English language learning and teaching. To this end, the present study aimed at scrutinizing the EFL learners’ attitude towards a self-study program using two language training software packages called Rosetta Stone and Tell Me More. Sixty elementary EFL participants were selected randomly from a non-state high school. Then they were divided into two groups each learning English through one of the previously-mentioned packages. They passed a self-study three-week using the two software packages. After that, they were required to fill up a Likert-type questionnaire based on their learning experience. The twenty-seven-item questionnaire elicited participants’ attitudes towards this sort of self-study program. The collected data were analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics. Based on the descriptive statistics, the findings revealed that the attitudes of the participants towards each item were different, although for most items such as learners’ preference towards a self-study program, their ideas about the software packages graphics, the speech recognition system, the ease of use in terms of individuals’ basic skills etc. they reflected positive views towards the use of each of the software packages. In addition, the result of Mann-Whitney U test showed that there was not a statistically significant difference between elementary EFL learners in terms of their attitudes towards the two language learning software packages.
Key Words: Computer-assisted Language Learning (CALL), Learners’ Attitude, Software Packages, English as a Foreign Language (EFL)
Chapter One
Introduction
1.0. Introduction
With the beginning of the era of technology and a whole raft of new language training software packages, it seems quite sensible to take a closer look at some of these attempts to enhance the quality and effectiveness of language learning and teaching. This is quite a fact that the advent of computer and following it the Internet has made the process of language learning easier, more convenient and even more enjoyable. In other words, technology has revolutionized diverse aspects of human life and as such language learning and teaching is no exception. The inclination towards the use of computer and multimedia facilities in the past two decades in the language education has been reported in the works of some researchers such as Salaberry (2001). The form of technology that is taken into consideration in the current study is the language training software packages.
Figura and Jarvis (2007) defined CALL as learners’ learning language in any context with, through, and around computer technologies. Egbert (http://www.iatefl.org.pl/call/j_key24.htm) (n.d.) also stated that CALL is the catalyst for new kinds of teaching and learning that enables learners to achieve their goals faster. It can be said that one of the final goals of CALL is to develop thinking skills in learners out of class environment. Apparently, CALL materials seem to be more appealing and promising owing to their capacity to integrate text, picture, sound, and animation. However, what makes a widespread research in this area arduous appears to be the difficulty in locating the learners using CALL materials.
It can be estimated that the use of computers as an asset to language learning and teaching commenced in the 1960s. As technology is subject to changes almost all the time, the definition of Beatty (2003) of CALL (computer-assisted language learning) that “any process in which a learner uses a computer and, as a result, improves his or her language” (p. 7) truly fits its nature. The field of CALL emerged in three various stages during its protracted history, Structural or Behavioristic CALL (1970s-1980), Communicative CALL (1980s-1990), and Integrative CALL (from late 20th up to 21st century).
As the first stage, behavioristic CALL was adopted as the part of the general field of computer-assisted instruction. As its name indicates, it was inspired by the behavioristic psychology clarifying repetitive language drills so called drill-and-practice (or drill-and-kill). The role of the computer was seen as a mechanical tutor that provided the opportunity to work at individuals’ own speed without getting tired. At that time a tutorial system called PLATO could mesmerize attentions with a central computer and terminals and featured extensive drills, grammatical explanations, and translation tests at various intervals (Ahmad, Corbett, Rogers, & Sussex, 1985).
The second stage, communicative CALL, came into existence at the time when behavioristic CALL was being rebuffed at both theoretical and empirical levels. It also synchronized the outbreak of PCs (personal computers) which proved to be more capable as far as individual work was concerned. Advocates of communicative CALL believed that computer-based activities should emphasize using forms in lieu of the forms themselves, teaching grammar implicitly rather than explicitly, encouraging and having learners produce authentic instead of prefabricated language, and using the language predominantly (Jones & Fortescue, 1987). Communicative CALL was pertinent to the cognitive theories maintaining learning as a process of discovery, expression, and development. Text reconstruction programs with the aim of discovering the patterns of language and meaning through unscrambling words and texts in the form of individual or group works as well as the simulation programs with simulated discussion and conversation allowing students to work in pairs or groups were on full swing. The dominant focus of most advocates of communicative CALL was the students’ interaction with each other while working with the computer.
Although the second stage of CALL seemed a greater success in comparison with the first, it was open to criticism. Critics slammed communicative CALL stating that computer is still being used in an ad hoc and disconnected fashion as a result; it “finds itself making a greater contribution to marginal rather than central elements” of language learning process (Kenning & Kenning, 1990, p. 90). It paved the path to adaptation of communicative language teaching theory in both theory and practice. Cognitive view of communicative language learning was leaving its place to a more socio-cognitive perspective that emphasized more language use in authentic social contexts. Approaches like task-based and content-based used to integrate learners into authentic language situations and also different language skills. As a result, the third stage of technology and language learning called Integrative CALL emerged. As stated before, this stage sought to integrate language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) and also technology to language learning process. Simply put, students are exposed to technological assets as a constant process rather than isolated exercises every now and then.
:
تحقیق حاضر دو ترجمه انگلیسی از تلمیحات موجود در منطق الطیر عطار را که در سالهای 1954و 1984بوسیله نات،دربندی ودیویس صورت گرفته اند را مورد بررسی قرار داده است.این تحقیق،استراتژیهای ارایه شده توسط لپیهالم 1997را که مترجمین حاضر جهت انتقال معنا از زبان فارسی به زبان انگلیسی بکاربرده اند را نیزمورد بررسی قرارداده و با هم مقایسه نموده است. نتایج نشان داده اند که هردو مترجم در ترجمه این تلمیحات از منطق الطیر،ازاستراتژی های مختلفی استفاده کرده اند که پرکاربردترین آنها عبارتندازترجمه استاندارد،تغییر جزیی،حذف،جایگزینی،كاهش،تولیددوباره وشناخت سطحی.بیشترین استراتژیهایی كه توسط مترجمان بكار گرفته شده اند ترجمه استاندارد،تغییرجزیی،و حذف هستند.استراتژیهای مورد نظر به مباحث معناشناسی، فرهنگی، بافت معنایی و ترجمه تحت الفظی تلمیحات مذکور مربوط می شوند.همچنین محقق دریافت که در ترجمه های مذکوراستراتژی استفاده از زیرنویس کمتر بکار برده شده است و با مقایسه این دو ترجمه از تلمیحات کدام ترجمه ازترجمه دیگری استاندارد تراست.ترجمه دربندی و دیویس تاحدی تحت الفظی تر از ترجمه ایست که توسط نات صورتگرفته است.لذا،عوامل دیگری چون آشنایی مترجمین با مسایلی همچون فرهنگ اسلامی،آیات و احادیث وایده خود مترجم در انتخاب استراتژی آنها نیز ایفای نقش کرده اند.یافته های تحقیق حاضر بر این فرض است که تلمیحات و ترجمه بینامتنیت، مقولات پیچیده ای هستند که در این تحقیق تنها نات توانسته است بطور موفق معنای مورد نظرمتن شعری اصیل در منطق الطیررا به خواننده زبان مبدا انتقال دهد
Table of Contents
Title Page
Title Page
Approval page ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. II
Table of Contents …………………………………………………………………………………………………. III
Acknowledgements………………………………………………………………………………………………. VI
Abstract ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. IX
List of Abbreviations …………………………………………………………………………………………….. X
Chapter One: Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1.1. Overview ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
1.2. Intertextuality and Allusion……………………………………………………………………………….. 2
1.3. Statement of the Problem………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
1.4. Significance of the Study ………………………………………………………………………………….. 4
1.5. Research Questions …………………………………………………………………………………………… 5
1.6. Definition of Key Terms……………………………………………………………………………………. 5
Chapter Two: Literature Review…………………………………………………………………………… 7
2.1. Overview ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 8
2.2. History of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 8
2.3. Types of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 11
2.3.1.Horizontal or Vertical Reference…………………………………………………………………….. 11
2.3.2. Manifest or constitutive Reference ……………………………………………………………. 12
2.3.3. Active versus passive Intertextuality………………………………………………………………. 12
2.4. Scope of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 12
2.5. Poetry……………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 12
2.6. Forms of Intertextuality…………………………………………………………………………………… 13
- 7. Allusion ………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 14
- 7.1.Functions of Allusion…………………………………………………………………………………… 15
2.7.2. Forms of Allusion ………………………………………………………………………………………… 15
2.7.3. Types of Allusion …………………………………………………………………………………………. 16
2.7.3.1. Religious Allusion……………………………………………………………………………………… 16
2.7.3.2. Literary Allusion ……………………………………………………………………………………….. 17
2.7.3.3. Mythological Allusion……………………………………………………………………………….. 18
2.7.3.4. Historical Allusion…………………………………………………………………………………….. 18
2.7.3.5. Proper-Name Allusion……………………………………………………………………………….. 19
2.7.3.6. Key-Phrase Allusion ………………………………………………………………………………….. 20
2.7.4. Potential Strategies for translating Allusion …………………………………………………….. 20
2.7.5. Complication of translating Allusive Texts ……………………………………………………… 27
2.8. Poetry Translation…………………………………………………………………………………………… 28
2.8.1. Possibility of Poetry Translation …………………………………………………………………….. 28
2.8.2. Types of Poetry Translation…………………………………………………………………………… 31
2.8.3. Methods of translating poetry……………………………………………………………………….. 34
2.8.4. Linguistic Problems……………………………………………………………………………………… 35
2.8.5. Literary or aesthetic Problems……………………………………………………………………….. 35
2.8.6. Poetic Structure…………………………………………………………………………………………… 35
2.8.7. Socio-cultural problems ………………………………………………………………………………… 35
Chapter three: Methodology………………………………………………………………………………… 36
3.1. Overview……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 37
3.2. Restatement of the research questions ………………………………………………………………. 37
3.3. Materials ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
3.3.1. Mantiq ut-Tair……………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
3.3.2. Nott’s Translation………………………………………………………………………………………….. 38
3.3.3. Darbandi’s and Davis’ Translation ………………………………………………………………….. 39
3.4. Procedures …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 39
Chapter Four: Data Analysis and Results …………………………………………………………….. 40
4.1. Overview ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 41
4.2. Analysis of the Data……………………………………………………………………………………….. 41
4.2.1. Key-phrase Allusions in Attar’s Mantiq ut-Tair………………………………………………….. 41
4.3. Results ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 69
Chapter Five: Discussion and Conclusions ……………………………………………………………. 74
5.1. Overview………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 75
5.2. Strategies Used for Key-phrases Allusion …………………………………………………………. 76
5.3. Concluding Remarks ………………………………………………………………………………………. 76
5.4. Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………………………………….. 77
5.5. Implications of the Study ………………………………………………………………………………… 77
5.6. Suggestions for Further Research……………………………………………………………………… 77
References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 78
Appendix……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 84
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest gratitude to my supervisor, Dr. H. Vahid Dastjerdi for his guidance, advice and constructive comments on the topic in question and providing advice and guidance throughout the research period.
My special thanks also go to Dr. M. R. Talebinejad for his advice, help and encouragement. And also I am grateful to my brother, Saadi, M.A. English teaching from University of Tehran.
Finally and most importantly, I thank my God for granting me health and fitness and inspiring me hope and encouragement to accomplish this work.
List of Tables
Table 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………… 68
List of Figures
Figure 2.1……………………………………………………………………………………………… 22
Figure 2.2……………………………………………………………………………………………… 23
Figure 4.3……………………………………………………………………………………………… 69
Abstract
The present study focused on two English translations of KP allusions in Attar’s
Mantiq ut-Tair. Attar’s Mantiq ut-Tair which has been translated by Nott (1954), Darbandi and Davis (1984) was used in the study. It also considered the strategies by Leppihalme (1997, p. 96) which two translators utilized when doing the job in order to transfer the meaning of the ST into TT. The present study compared two English translations of Mantiq ut-Tair with each other to find out what translation strategies have the translators used to convey the intertextual allusive items to the TT and to what extent the true sense of KP allusion in Mantiq ut Tair has been transferred to English. The results showed that when dealing with KP allusions present in the ST which are absent from the TL, translators often resort to different strategies ranging from standard translation, minimum change, omission, replacement, reduction, recreation to the simulated familiarity strategies. The most frequently used strategies by the translators were standard translation, minimum change and omission. These strategies contribute to semantic, cultural, contextual, and literal translation of allusions. The researcher also found that the translations were subject to almost all different strategies except use of footnotes strategy. This thesis also made a comparison between the first translation and the second one to find out which one is more standard than the other with respect to the translation of intertextual references. The second translation of Mantiq ut- Tair by Darbandi and Davis to some extent was more literal than the first translation by Nott. Therefore, other factors such as familiarity with Islamic culture, verses, traditions and the translators’ ideas for which the translations are carried out are needed to explain the translator’s choice of different strategies. The findings of the study suggested that due to the fact that KP allusions and intertextuality are more complicated issues, only Nott could successfully transfer the intended meaning of the original poetry text in Mantiq ut-Tair to TL reader.
List of Abbreviations
KP=Key-phrase
PN=Proper noun
SL= Source language
ST=Source text
TL=Target Language
TT=Target text
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
- Overview
The concept of intertextuality was first introduced by Julia Kristeva in an essay entitled “Word, Dialogue and Novel”, in 1966, to describe the way all language and all literature are constructed from previous utterances to form mosaics of quotations (Kristeva, 1986, p. 37). “Intertextuality concerns the factors which make the utilization of one text dependent upon knowledge of one or more previously encountered texts (Beaugrande & Dressler, 1981, p. 10).” In other words, Hatim (1997) also argued intertextuality is one of the basic forms of relations that are presence of one text in another one – a quote would be the most obvious example (p. 29).
Meanwhile, Fairclough (1992) noted that intertextuality points to how texts can transform prior texts and restructure existing conventions (genres, discourses) to generate new ones (p. 270). “A text is no longer considered as the container of meaning, but as an intertextual space in which a number of elements are combined, absorbed or transformed (Cascallana, 2006, p. 98).” However, Schäffner & Holmes (1995, p. 58) argued that the influences of intertextuality and the relationship between text and context predispose a target audience to associate specific content with text presented through a given medium.
According to Lefevere (1992), translating poetry can be considered different from translating other text types, in the sense that one translating poetry is not engaged in a single level to deal with but a fourfold process including: language, ideology, poetics and universe of discourse at each of which particular problems arise to involve him with (p. 88).
متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان انگلیسی
عنوان : پایان نامه رشته زبان انگلیسی : Analysis of Narrative in Trout Fishing in America and In Watermelon Sugarby Richard Brautigan
ISLAMIC AZAD UNIVERSITY
Central Tehran Branch
Faculty of Foreign Languages-Department of English
“M.A” Thesis
on English Literature
Subject:
Analysis of Narrative in Trout Fishing in America and In Watermelon Sugarby Richard Brautigan
Advisor:
Dr. Jalal Sokhanvar
Reader:
Dr. KianSoheil
January 2011
برای رعایت حریم خصوصی نام نگارنده پایان نامه درج نمی شود
(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)
تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :
(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)
Abstract
The present thesis, adopting a poststructuralist approach, studies the narrative in Trout Fishing in America and In Watermelon Sugar, two novels by Richard Brautigan. The study benefits from deconstructive reading as one of the main foundations of poststructuralist narratology. Displaying deconstruction of important binary oppositions in these two narratives was the main concern of the thesis. The body of the thesis, chapter three and four, each is specified to the study of one of these two binaries. In chapter three, binary opposition of reality/fictionality is studied and the researcher shows how the boundary between these two is blurred. Language is also another tool through which the said binary is challenged. Chapter four studies the binary of past/present and includes subtitles such as narrative time, parody and binary opposition of presence/absence. Parodying particular genre or particular concepts is one of the outstanding characteristics of Brautigan’s works which is apparent in these two novels as well. The parodic nature of Trout Fishing in America is shown by pointing to the different references to American history and well known concepts. In In Watermelon Sugar, metanarrative of utopia collapses down and is replaced with the narratives, each capable of suggesting new definitions for utopia. Deconstruction of this metanarrative, rooted in history, literature and religion, is produced by deconstruction of another binary opposition that is presence/absence. The act of giving voice to the silent narrative or narratives within the text, as well as paying attention to the absent narrators releases the text from the dominancy of the present narrative and makes the hidden or silent narratives emerge.
Table of Contents
Abstract 2
Acknowledgment 3
CHAPTER ONE.. 7
INTRODUCTION.. 7
- General Background. 7
1.1 Beat Generation. 9
. 10
. 10
.. 12
- The Argument 13
- Literature Review.. 16
- Thesis Outline. 20
- Methodology and Approach. 23
- Definition of Literary Terms. 25
CHAPTER TWO.. 31
METHODOLOGY AND APPROACH.. 31
- Historical Background of Deconstruction. 33
. 33
. 36
. 37
38
. 39
- From Structuralist Narratology to Poststructuralist Narratology. 40
- Derrida and Deconstruction. 45
.. 46
. 49
. 51
CHAPTER THREE.. 53
FICTIONALITY/ REALITY.. 53
- Beyond Mimesis. 55
. 55
. 57
. 58
- Practical Example of Metafiction. 59
. 59
62
. 64
. 67
. 68
. 72
- In Watermelon Sugar, Reality in a Fantasy. 75
. 76
. 77
. 79
. 81
- Conclusion. 82
CHAPTER FOUR.. 84
PARODY.. 84
- Parody, Deconstruction of Past/Present 85
- Trout Fishing in America, a Parody. 87
. 88
.. 89
. 92
- In Watermelon Sugar as a Parody of Utopia. 93
. 93
. 94
. 94
. 95
. 97
. 98
.. 99
. 100
. 104
- Conclusion. 108
CHAPTER FIVE.. 109
CONCLUSION.. 109
- Chapters Review.. 109
- Findings and Results. 116
- Suggestion for Further Research. 119
Works Cited. 124
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1. General Background
American literature is indebted a great deal to the Beat Generation. In fact the shift towards the postmodern fiction and poetry wasn’t possible if it were not for the Beat Generation writers. Richard Brautigan is always considered as a writer emerging from this generation. Although he never committed himself to any label or literary movement, his writings is always considered as good examples of the American novel at the period. This thesis is going to analyze two of the early and most important novels of Brautigan.
Richard Brautigan is the author of ten novels, nine volumes of poetry and a collection of short stories. According
to Companion to the American Novel he is best remembered for Trout Fishing in America which is considered as “a novel that revolutionized postmodern fiction and may becompared today to works of his contemporary, Ken Kesey, and viewed as the precursor to such younger writers as Tom Robbins” (176).
According to the same source, “Brautigan was born on January 20, 1935, in Tacoma, Washington, to Mary Lula Brautigan; apparently he never met his father, Bernard F. Brautigan, and his mother reportedly also abandoned her children from time to time”(176). At the age of 21 and after being hospitalized as a paranoid schizophrenic, he left Tacoma for San Francisco and met with Lawrence Ferlinghetti who ran a bookstore and small publisher house named City Lights. This bookstore was a gathering place for young poets and writers like Jack Kerouac and William S. Burroughs and Brautigan was soon get influenced by their radical views about literature. The first novel he wrote was Trout Fishing in America but the first novel that was published by him was named A Confederate General from Big Sur (1965). Trout Fishing in America hadn’t been published sooner than two years later in 1967 but when it was released its sudden success among the young American readers was almost a legend. From that time on Brautigan was appreciated by his young readers for his revolutionary style but the critical success didn’t come to him till his death. This American writer committed suicide in 1984 at the age of forty-nine. It was only in late 80s that the literary critics came to conclusion about his works and labeled them as good examples of early postmodern metafiction and cross–genre works. As mentioned above, Brautigan indebted much of his fame to The Beat Generation, a generation which Random House Dictionary, quoting Jack Kerouac, defines in this way: “those who were raised among the Second World War, those who probably due to the influence of the cold war had the tendency to habits and a desire for getting rid of social and sexual tensions”. So it would be useful to follow this movement from a closer view.
1.1 Beat Generation
The Beat Generation is a term coined first by an American journalist named Holmes. He was a friend of Kerouac and after reviewing his friend’s ideas published an article in The New York Times Magazine and introduced the term as a label for the young generation emerging from the post-war era in 1952. The term refers to a social life style inspired by careless living and drug addiction which was proper at the time and was a source of inspiration for a few young writers and poets that later were labeled as “beatniks”. These writers had a central group including three major writers, Alain Ginsberg, Jack Kerouac and William. S. Burroughs. Their main attitude in literature was rejection of fixed mainstream literary works as well as the American values in post-war era. They had been inspired a lot by the free life style of ordinary youth along with some effects from experimentation with drugs and an interest in Eastern spirituality. Jamie Russell in The Beat Generation writes:
The Beat phenomenon transformed American society. Not only was it the first expression of what we would now dub youth culture—paving the way for the hippies, punks, grungers and ravers as well as a thousand and one other styles—but it was also the first moment in Western culture when litera
این تحقیق تلاشی برای تحلیل رمان اجاره نشینان1 (1971) در راستای نژادپرستی2 و تبعیض نژادی3 در آمریکا بین جمعیت مسیحی سیاه پوست و یهودی سفیدپوست میباشد و به تاثیر مواردی از جمله مذهب و ناسیونالیزم در روابط این دو گروه میپردازد. این رمان داستان دو نویسنده یهودی و سیاه پوست است که در یک آپارتمان اجاره ای با تفکرات ضد سیاه پوستی و یهودی ستیزی4 خود زندگی کرده و این افکار بر روابط بین گروهی، درون گروهی و همچنین روابط آنها با زنان تاثیر میگذارند. ایده های مختلف از منتقدین برجسته در زمینه نژادپرستی و همچنین بیگانه ترسی5 اخذ شده و از آن میان مرکز توجه بیشتر روی تاریخ روابط، مذهب، ناسیونالیزم و سیاست “حل شدن در جامعه“6 یهودیان، تصورات یهودیان از سیاهان و سیاهان از یهودیان همچنین باورهای سیاهان از سیاهان و یهودیان از یهودیان و در پایان اتحاد گذرای بین سیاه پوستان و یهودیان است که توسط منتقد و فعال حقوق مدنی آقای کرنل وست7 (1953) مطرح شده اند. تاثیر مستقیم موارد ذکرشده توسط آقای وست بر رفتار شخصیتهای رمان نشان میدهد که چگونه هر گروه قومی راهی متفاوت از دیگری برای ادغام در جامعه و فرار از گذشته سرکوب شده خود و همچنین فرار از “دیگری8 بودن” انتخاب کرده است. نحوه و سبک نوشتاری نویسنده که به صورت واگذاری نتیجه گیری به خواننده رمان میباشد، تصوری حاکی از امکان حل اختلافات بین دو گروه نژادی یادشده را عنوان مینماید.
واژه های کلیدی: نژادپرستی – تبعیض نژادی – یهودی ستیزی – بیگانه ترسی – دیگری
Abstract
This research analyzes The Tenants (1971) within the context of ethnocentrism, specifically the segregation between two minority groups of Jews and Blacks in the USA, and the extent to which religion and nationalism, among other factors, have affected their interactions. The novel is a story of two writers, one Jewish, one Afro-American, living in a tenement and how Anti-Black and Anti-Semitic sentiments affect their relationship and their lives within their own community and their interactions with women. Different ideas on discrimination against minorities and xenophobia from racism critics are presented; among them there is a focus on History of the Confrontation, Religion, Nationalism including Jews Assimilation policy, Conceptions of Blacks from Jews and vice versa together with Conceptions of Blacks from Blacks and Jews from Jews and finally the transitory Alliance between the two cultures which are proposed by the civil right activist and critic, Cornel West (1953). There is proof of direct effect of these factors introduced by West on the characters and how these points lead them to choose a different way of overcoming their suppressed past and to avoid remaining the Other. The open-endedness factor of this masterpiece from the beginning to the end of the novel gives a sense of resolution between the two races to the reader.
Key Terms: Ethnocentrism, Segregation, Anti-Semitism, Xenophobia, Other
Table of Contents
Chapter I
Introduction 8
1.1. General Background 8
1.2. Statement of the Problem 12
1.3. Objectives and Significance of the Study 14
1.3.1. Hypothesis 14
1.3.2. Purpose of the Study 17
1.3.3. Research Questions 17
1.4. Materials and Methodology 18
1.5. Definition of Key Terms 20
1.6. Motivation and Delimitation 23
1.7. Organization of the Study 25
Chapter II
Ethnocentrism and Jew-Black Discriminations 26
2.1. Black’s Anti-Semitism and Jew’s Anti-Black Racism 28
2.1.1. History of Jew-Black Confrontation 29
2.1.2. The Role of Religion in Jew-Black Antagonism 32
2.1.3. The Civil Rights Movement and Transitory Alliance 35
2.2. Jew-Black Social Life in America and the Conceptions 39
2.2.1. Jews-Blacks and White Christian Society 40
2.2.2. Jewish Nationalism 44
2.2.3. Black Nationalism 47
2.2.4. Blacks Conceptions of Jews and vice versa 51
2.2.5. Blacks Conceptions of Blacks 54
2.2.6. Jews Conceptions of Jews 56
Chapter III
The Tenants and Ethnocentrism 60
3.1. Jews Social Life 63
3.1.1. Lesser as a Jew 65
3.1.2. Lesser as a Writer 69
3.1.3. Lesser as a White 74
3.1.4. Lesser as a Boyfriend 76
3.2. Blacks Social Life 78
3.2.1. Willie as a Black 80
3.2.2. Willie as a Writer 84
3.2.3. Willie as a Boyfriend 89
Chapter IV
The Tenants and Jew-Black Communication 91
4.1. Jew-Black Conflicts and The Tenants 91
4.2. Jew-Black Alliances and The Tenants 95
4.3. Happy Ending and Alliance 102
4.4. Sad Ending and Assassinations 106
Chapter V
Conclusion 113
5.1. Summing Up 113
5.2. Findings 115
5.3. Suggestions for Further Research 121
Works Cited 123
Chapter I
Introduction
1.1. General Background
Bernard Malamud (April 26, 1914 – March 18, 1986), a great prolific American Jewish writer of 20th century, was born into a Russian-Jewish immigrant family. His major concern in most of his works is the problem of the Jews in world and the prevalent racial issues of his era. Professionally speaking, being a Pulitzer Prize for his novel against discriminations on Jews, The Fixer (1966) is one of his life time achievements.
His novels include the tragic-comic element and pessimism that Malamud uses with his unique style of writing, displaying the challenges of modern urban life with focus on marginalized characters who struggle to survive through love and forgiveness rooted in Judeo-Christian beliefs (Pinsker, 205-211). The Tenants (1971) is one of his famous novels which revolves around the Black-Jewish relationship in 20th century USA.
Specifically speaking, The Tenants is the story of two writers, one Jewish and the other Black, about their conflicts and communication in a tenement located in New York with no appropriate conditions for living. The novel opens with Harry Lesser (Jewish writer) having spent nine and half years finishing his book and refusing to leave the tenement belonging to Mr. Levenspiel until his last chapter of the novel is completed.
Lesser is not the only character from a minority group settling that tenement. While he is following his routine life of writing his novel, second character from Black minority appears and from that point on their interaction triggers a latent fear and hatred which come to its zenith in a tragic scene in one of the endings of the novel. In this pathetic scene both writers become victims of each other’s hatred ending up, in one of the endings of the book, killed by one another and Lesser’s ten year manuscript burned by Willie (The black character). And in the other ending, which is a happy one and where multiracial marriages take place, a more detailed consideration is required.
Though created by Malamud’s creative and imaginative mind, the dramatic frictions of two main characters throughout the story were the direct reflection of the social and political current salient and challenging in Malamud’s life time. The concepts that are worth consideration in The Tenants are Black Anti-Semitism and Jewish Anti-Black Racism in American Society with its multicultural setting and how the construction of American identity in the modern era for Jews and Blacks is affected by ethnocentrism, religion and the history behind the two cultures. To grasp the inner atmosphere of the story and what had occupied Malamud’s mind, a cursory glance at racism history seems helpful.
Racism and its related movements in USA are well known through the world. The Blacks, the Jews and other minority groups have struggled to make themselves free from the racists’ burdens and this created an atmosphere of alliance and support between minority groups and encouraged the leaders of each minority speak for the right of not only his race but also other minorities. Therefore, it is not strange to hear that Jewish leaders and Black revolutionary vanguards defended each other in the face of White-Christian mainstream. Despite this unity, after 1950s some changes and shifts began to burgeon. The Jews trend in surrendering part of their identity to achieve the mainstream approval was one of the starting points of their difference with the Blacks. They continued to develop socially and economically and even as writers they devoted part of White-American literary canon to themselves and their works found readers among White Christian people. They accepted to obey the grammatical rules defined by mainstream while black writers were completely reluctant to surrender even their writing style.
Quite contrary with the Jews were the Blacks who detested losing their identity in favor of getting the Whites’ admission. Their writers, as mentioned above, continued to follow their own language, style of writing and vocabulary which were different from those of the Whites. Following the story, reader would find the same tendency in Lesser, the Jewish writer, and Willie, the Black writer. Willie is abhorrent to accept the grammatical rules of the mainstream. That is why while reading and revising Willie’s manuscript, Lesser criticizes him for not following the regular writing rules and this shows Lesser’s acceptance of mainstream rules and his idea of Willie’s wrong deed not to obey it.
Not only in writing but also in most of their life affairs, the Blacks continued to ask for their rights. Not accepting the Whites’ norms they remained the others while the Jews came free of being the other. The chains of alliance were broken and these two minority groups stood in two opposite poles and hatred emerged in their daily life interaction. The Tenants is a meticulous observation of these two writers’ reaction to each other and their emotional and psychological response. Willie releases his anger and terror in his innovative writing wherein he kills and even eats the Jews including Lesser several times.
These concepts and Jews and Blacks Nationalism as marginalized figures in America and the relationship between them, have been the subject of interest of many critics; among them the African-American critic Cornel Ronald West’s (1953) ideas are worth consideration. West is a Black-American civil-right activist addressing such issues as multiculturalism, racism, socialism and focusing on African-American studies. He contributed to post-1950s civil right movement and led most of his activities around gender, race, and class in American society and showed his interest in these fields from early youth. West’s school of thought circles around the history of discrimination, the peace moments between two cultures and the roots of hatred in regard to many factors including religion. West calls America a “Racist Patriarchal” (Race Matters, 90) and as he believes in one of his bestselling books, Race Matters (1993) “As long as black people are viewed as a them the burden falls on blacks to do all the cultural and moral work necessary for healthy race relations. The implication is that only certain Americans can define what it means to be American—and the rest must simply fit in” (West, 3).
In West ideas, Black inferiority and self-degradation facing White settlers superiority, undermined their genuine feeling of true citizens, as a result a dormant feeling of fear, fake identity and hatred emerged to define their everyday life. A good example of what West is focusing on is seen in the relationship between two characters in The Tenants. As he indicates, “Recent debates on the state of black-Jewish relations have generated more heat than light. Instead of critical dialogue and respectful exchange, people have witnessed several bouts of vulgar name-calling and self-righteous finger-pointing” (West, Race Matters, 71). The reader faces the same matter at one ending of The Tenants as Willie calls Lesser “Blood suckin Jew Nigger hater” and Lesser calls Willie “Anti-Semitic Ape” (The Tenants, 90).
Reading The Tenants in the light of Cornel West’s ideas makes the researcher interested to appoint them to this novel. What makes this analysis more interesting is the two very different endings of the novel which proposes more questions and more considerations of the two characters’ relationship with one another and with other people in the society.
1.2. Statement of the Problem
America is a multicultural country and home of a variety of ethnic groups with different cultures and religions, so it seems that friction and collision between minorities is a common problem there and has been the subject matter of many surveys and novels. The Blacks and the Jews are two groups which have been experiencing this tough situation from 1950s on. It was before 1950s that there was short alliance between the two cultures at the time of The Civil Rights Movements in America toward the freedom for Africans and other marginal figures but the
discrimination factor and ethnocentrism has continued to be felt and lived through the stereotypes believed by people up to the present time. What makes the matter even more complex is how the members of each marginal group as Jews and Blacks feel and treat each other, the conceptions they have of one another and the self-degradation beliefs in their relationships.
As the former Harvard lecturer on history and literature, Edmund Spevack (1963-2001), quotes from the African American civil right activist William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963) in his essay on “Racism and Multiculturalism in Bernard Malamud’s The Tenants” (1997) “W.E.B. Du Bois warned in 1903 that the main problem of the twentieth century would be the color line; indeed, the burning issues of economic, social, and cultural inequality among racial groups in America were not solved, but became ever more complex and urgent” (Spevack, 33). Besides, he cites Henry Louis Gates (1950), the African American writer and literary critic in the same essay, “We might as well argue that the problem of the twenty-first century will be the problem of ethnic differences, as these conspire with complex differences in color, gender, and class” (Spevack, 50).
As pointed out before, in the twentieth century and also at the present time, the main problem of such multinational country as America is how to deal with the difficulties and tensions raised between the minorities like those of Black and Jewish people. The world of The Tenants is indicative of this modern social and political phenomenon that has cast a shadow over the life of two main characters, Lesser and Willie, through story. As West indicates in his book Race Matters,
Black anti-Semitism and Jewish anti-black racism are real, and both are as profoundly American as cherry pie. There was no golden age in which blacks and Jews were free of tension and friction. Yet there was a better age when the common histories of oppression and degradation of both groups served as a springboard for genuine empathy and principled alliances. Since the late sixties, black-Jewish relations have reached a nadir (Race Matters, 71).
Although very few and very short, there are moments in the novel when two characters seem friendly and sympathetic toward each other, for example when Willie gives his manuscripts to Lesser to read and revise, or inviting Lesser to the party, when Lesser hides Willie from the owner of the tenement, who is also a Jew, when Willie supports Lesser from the physical attack of his friends and many other instances from novel’s close reading that researcher thinks as likely to be seen in great accordance with Cornel West’s ideas about short alliance.
Apart from the conflicts mentioned previously, Malamud’s style in development of his writing and characters are to be analyzed which includes the clashes between two marginal cultures of Jews and Blacks, the history and roots behind them in the account of Cornel West ideas and how the roots affect the relationship between the two characters in novel The Tenants, the African-American relationship, (or the Black-Jewish relationship, the term used by West), their bigotry toward each other and their hard times living together and with other people in the society are going to be highlighted.
