وبلاگ

 

 

این تحقیق تلاشی برای تحلیل رمان اجاره نشینان1 (1971) در راستای نژادپرستی2 و تبعیض نژادی3 در آمریکا بین جمعیت مسیحی سیاه پوست و یهودی سفیدپوست میباشد و به تاثیر مواردی از جمله مذهب و ناسیونالیزم در روابط این دو گروه میپردازد. این رمان داستان دو نویسنده یهودی و سیاه پوست است که در یک آپارتمان اجاره ای با تفکرات ضد سیاه پوستی و یهودی ستیزی4 خود زندگی کرده و این افکار بر روابط بین گروهی، درون گروهی و همچنین روابط آنها با زنان تاثیر میگذارند. ایده های مختلف از منتقدین برجسته در زمینه نژادپرستی و همچنین بیگانه ترسی5 اخذ شده و از آن میان مرکز توجه بیشتر روی تاریخ روابط، مذهب، ناسیونالیزم و سیاست “حل شدن در جامعه“6 یهودیان، تصورات یهودیان از سیاهان و سیاهان از یهودیان همچنین باورهای سیاهان از سیاهان و یهودیان از یهودیان و در پایان اتحاد گذرای بین سیاه پوستان و یهودیان است که توسط منتقد و فعال حقوق مدنی آقای کرنل وست7 (1953) مطرح شده اند. تاثیر مستقیم موارد ذکرشده توسط آقای وست بر رفتار شخصیتهای رمان نشان میدهد که چگونه هر گروه قومی راهی متفاوت از دیگری برای ادغام در جامعه و فرار از گذشته سرکوب شده خود و همچنین فرار از “دیگری8 بودن” انتخاب کرده است. نحوه و سبک نوشتاری نویسنده که به صورت واگذاری نتیجه گیری به خواننده رمان میباشد، تصوری حاکی از امکان حل اختلافات بین دو گروه نژادی یادشده را عنوان مینماید.

 

واژه های کلیدی: نژادپرستی –  تبعیض نژادی – یهودی ستیزی – بیگانه ترسی – دیگری

 

Abstract

 

 

 

This research analyzes The Tenants (1971) within the context of ethnocentrism, specifically the segregation between two minority groups of Jews and Blacks in the USA, and the extent to which religion and nationalism, among other factors, have affected their interactions. The novel is a story of two writers, one Jewish, one Afro-American, living in a tenement and how Anti-Black and Anti-Semitic sentiments affect their relationship and their lives within their own community and their interactions with women. Different ideas on discrimination against minorities and xenophobia from racism critics are presented; among them there is a focus on History of the Confrontation, Religion, Nationalism including Jews Assimilation policy, Conceptions of Blacks from Jews and vice versa together with Conceptions of Blacks from Blacks and Jews from Jews and finally the transitory Alliance between the two cultures which are proposed by the civil right activist and critic, Cornel West (1953). There is proof of direct effect of these factors introduced by West on the characters and how these points lead them to choose a different way of overcoming their suppressed past and to avoid remaining the Other. The open-endedness factor of this masterpiece from the beginning to the end of the novel gives a sense of resolution between the two races to the reader.

 

 

 

Key Terms: Ethnocentrism, Segregation, Anti-Semitism, Xenophobia, Other

 

 

 

 

 

Table of Contents

 

 

 

Chapter I

 

Introduction 8

 

1.1. General Background 8

 

1.2. Statement of the Problem 12

 

1.3. Objectives and Significance of the Study 14

 

1.3.1. Hypothesis 14

 

1.3.2. Purpose of the Study 17

 

1.3.3. Research Questions 17

 

1.4. Materials and Methodology 18

 

1.5. Definition of Key Terms 20

 

1.6. Motivation and Delimitation 23

 

1.7. Organization of the Study 25

 

Chapter II

 

Ethnocentrism and Jew-Black Discriminations 26

 

2.1. Black’s Anti-Semitism and Jew’s Anti-Black Racism 28

 

2.1.1. History of Jew-Black Confrontation 29

 

2.1.2. The Role of Religion in Jew-Black Antagonism 32

 

2.1.3. The Civil Rights Movement and Transitory Alliance 35

 

2.2. Jew-Black Social Life in America and the Conceptions 39

 

2.2.1. Jews-Blacks and White Christian Society 40

 

2.2.2. Jewish Nationalism 44

 

2.2.3. Black Nationalism 47

 

2.2.4. Blacks Conceptions of Jews and vice versa 51

 

2.2.5. Blacks Conceptions of Blacks 54

 

2.2.6. Jews Conceptions of Jews 56

 

Chapter III

 

The Tenants and Ethnocentrism 60

 

3.1. Jews Social Life 63

 

3.1.1. Lesser as a Jew 65

 

3.1.2. Lesser as a Writer 69

 

3.1.3. Lesser as a White 74

 

3.1.4. Lesser as a Boyfriend 76

 

3.2. Blacks Social Life 78

 

3.2.1. Willie as a Black 80

 

3.2.2. Willie as a Writer 84

 

3.2.3. Willie as a Boyfriend 89

 

Chapter IV

 

The Tenants and Jew-Black Communication 91

 

4.1. Jew-Black Conflicts and The Tenants 91

 

4.2. Jew-Black Alliances and The Tenants 95

 

4.3. Happy Ending and Alliance 102

 

4.4. Sad Ending and Assassinations 106

 

Chapter V

 

Conclusion 113

 

5.1. Summing Up 113

 

5.2. Findings 115

 

5.3. Suggestions for Further Research 121

 

 

 

Works Cited 123

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Chapter I

 

Introduction

 

 

 

1.1. General Background

 

Bernard Malamud (April 26, 1914 – March 18, 1986), a great prolific American Jewish writer of 20th century, was born into a Russian-Jewish immigrant family. His major concern in most of his works is the problem of the Jews in world and the prevalent racial issues of his era. Professionally speaking, being a Pulitzer Prize for his novel against discriminations on Jews, The Fixer (1966) is one of his life time achievements.

 

His novels include the tragic-comic element and pessimism that Malamud uses with his unique style of writing, displaying the challenges of modern urban life with focus on marginalized characters who struggle to survive through love and forgiveness rooted in Judeo-Christian beliefs (Pinsker, 205-211). The Tenants (1971) is one of his famous novels which revolves around the Black-Jewish relationship in 20th century USA.

 

Specifically speaking, The Tenants is the story of two writers, one Jewish and the other Black, about their conflicts and communication in a tenement located in New York with no appropriate conditions for living. The novel opens with Harry Lesser (Jewish writer) having spent nine and half years finishing his book and refusing to leave the tenement belonging to Mr. Levenspiel until his last chapter of the novel is completed.

 

Lesser is not the only character from a minority group settling that tenement. While he is following his routine life of writing his novel, second character from Black minority appears and from that point on their interaction triggers a latent fear and hatred which come to its zenith in a tragic scene in one of the endings of the novel. In this pathetic scene both writers become victims of each other’s hatred ending up, in one of the endings of the book, killed by one another and Lesser’s ten year manuscript burned by Willie (The black character). And in the other ending, which is a happy one and where multiracial marriages take place, a more detailed consideration is required.

 

Though created by Malamud’s creative and imaginative mind, the dramatic frictions of two main characters throughout the story were the direct reflection of the social and political current salient and challenging in Malamud’s life time. The concepts that are worth consideration in The Tenants are Black Anti-Semitism and Jewish Anti-Black Racism in American Society with its multicultural setting and how the construction of American identity in the modern era for Jews and Blacks is affected by ethnocentrism, religion and the history behind the two cultures. To grasp the inner atmosphere of the story and what had occupied Malamud’s mind, a cursory glance at racism history seems helpful.

 

Racism and its related movements in USA are well known through the world. The Blacks, the Jews and other minority groups have struggled to make themselves free from the racists’ burdens and this created an atmosphere of alliance and support between minority groups and encouraged the leaders of each minority speak for the right of not only his race but also other minorities. Therefore, it is not strange to hear that Jewish leaders and Black revolutionary vanguards defended each other in the face of White-Christian mainstream. Despite this unity, after 1950s some changes and shifts began to burgeon. The Jews trend in surrendering part of their identity to achieve the mainstream approval was one of the starting points of their difference with the Blacks. They continued to develop socially and economically and even as writers they devoted part of White-American literary canon to themselves and their works found readers among White Christian people. They accepted to obey the grammatical rules defined by mainstream while black writers were completely reluctant to surrender even their writing style.

 

Quite contrary with the Jews were the Blacks who detested losing their identity in favor of getting the Whites’ admission. Their writers, as mentioned above, continued to follow their own language, style of writing and vocabulary which were different from those of the Whites. Following the story, reader would find the same tendency in Lesser, the Jewish writer, and Willie, the Black writer. Willie is abhorrent to accept the grammatical rules of the mainstream. That is why while reading and revising Willie’s manuscript, Lesser criticizes him for not following the regular writing rules and this shows Lesser’s acceptance of mainstream rules and his idea of Willie’s wrong deed not to obey it.

 

Not only in writing but also in most of their life affairs, the Blacks continued to ask for their rights. Not accepting the Whites’ norms they remained the others while the Jews came free of being the other. The chains of alliance were broken and these two minority groups stood in two opposite poles and hatred emerged in their daily life interaction. The Tenants is a meticulous observation of these two writers’ reaction to each other and their emotional and psychological response. Willie releases his anger and terror in his innovative writing wherein he kills and even eats the Jews including Lesser several times.

 

These concepts and Jews and Blacks Nationalism as marginalized figures in America and the relationship between them, have been the subject of interest of many critics; among them the African-American critic Cornel Ronald West’s (1953) ideas are worth consideration. West is a Black-American civil-right activist addressing such issues as multiculturalism, racism, socialism and focusing on African-American studies. He contributed to post-1950s civil right movement and led most of his activities around gender, race, and class in American society and showed his interest in these fields from early youth. West’s school of thought circles around the history of discrimination, the peace moments between two cultures and the roots of hatred in regard to many factors including religion. West calls America a “Racist Patriarchal” (Race Matters, 90) and as he believes in one of his bestselling books, Race Matters (1993) “As long as black people are viewed as a them the burden falls on blacks to do all the cultural and moral work necessary for healthy race relations. The implication is that only certain Americans can define what it means to be American—and the rest must simply fit in” (West, 3).

 

In West ideas, Black inferiority and self-degradation facing White settlers superiority, undermined their genuine feeling of true citizens, as a result a dormant feeling of fear, fake identity and hatred emerged to define their everyday life. A good example of what West is focusing on is seen in the relationship between two characters in The Tenants. As he indicates, “Recent debates on the state of black-Jewish relations have generated more heat than light. Instead of critical dialogue and respectful exchange, people have witnessed several bouts of vulgar name-calling and self-righteous finger-pointing” (West, Race Matters, 71). The reader faces the same matter at one ending of The Tenants as Willie calls Lesser “Blood suckin Jew Nigger hater” and Lesser calls Willie “Anti-Semitic Ape” (The Tenants, 90).

 

Reading The Tenants in the light of Cornel West’s ideas makes the researcher interested to appoint them to this novel. What makes this analysis more interesting is the two very different endings of the novel which proposes more questions and more considerations of the two characters’ relationship with one another and with other people in the society.

 

 

 

1.2. Statement of the Problem

 

America is a multicultural country and home of a variety of ethnic groups with different cultures and religions, so it seems that friction and collision between minorities is a common problem there and has been the subject matter of many surveys and novels. The Blacks and the Jews are two groups which have been experiencing this tough situation from 1950s on. It was before 1950s that there was short alliance between the two cultures at the time of The Civil Rights Movements in America toward the freedom for Africans and other marginal figures but the

 

 discrimination factor and ethnocentrism has continued to be felt and lived through the stereotypes believed by people up to the present time. What makes the matter even more complex is how the members of each marginal group as Jews and Blacks feel and treat each other, the conceptions they have of one another and the self-degradation beliefs in their relationships.

 

As the former Harvard lecturer on history and literature, Edmund Spevack (1963-2001), quotes from the African American civil right activist William Edward Burghardt Du Bois (1868-1963) in his essay on “Racism and Multiculturalism in Bernard Malamud’s The Tenants” (1997) “W.E.B. Du Bois warned in 1903 that the main problem of the twentieth century would be the color line; indeed, the burning issues of economic, social, and cultural inequality among racial groups in America were not solved, but became ever more complex and urgent” (Spevack, 33). Besides,  he cites Henry Louis Gates (1950), the African American writer and literary critic in the same essay, “We might as well argue that the problem of the twenty-first century will be the problem of ethnic differences, as these conspire with complex differences in color, gender, and class” (Spevack, 50).

 

As pointed out before, in the twentieth century and also at the present time, the main problem of such multinational country as America is how to deal with the difficulties and tensions raised between the minorities like those of Black and Jewish people. The world of The Tenants is indicative of this modern social and political phenomenon that has cast a shadow over the life of two main characters, Lesser and Willie, through story. As West indicates in his book Race Matters,

 

Black anti-Semitism and Jewish anti-black racism are real, and both are as profoundly American as cherry pie. There was no golden age in which blacks and Jews were free of tension and friction. Yet there was a better age when the common histories of oppression and degradation of both groups served as a springboard for genuine empathy and principled alliances. Since the late sixties, black-Jewish relations have reached a nadir (Race Matters, 71).

 

 

 

Although  very few and very short, there are moments in the novel when two characters seem friendly and sympathetic toward each other, for example when Willie gives his manuscripts to Lesser to read and revise, or inviting Lesser to the party, when Lesser hides Willie from the owner of the tenement, who is also a Jew, when Willie supports Lesser from the physical attack of his friends and many other instances from novel’s close reading that researcher thinks as likely to be seen in great accordance with Cornel West’s ideas about short alliance.

 

Apart from the conflicts mentioned previously, Malamud’s style in development of his writing and characters are to be analyzed which includes the clashes between two marginal cultures of Jews and Blacks, the history and roots behind them in the account of Cornel West ideas and how the roots affect the relationship between the two characters in novel The Tenants, the African-American relationship, (or the Black-Jewish relationship, the term used by West), their bigotry toward each other and their hard times living together and with other people in the society are going to be highlighted.

متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان انگلیسی

 

 

 

 

 

عنوان :پایان نامه رشته زبان انگلیسی : Brain State Dependent Role of Attention in Perceptual Processing and Decision Making

 

 

 

 

Institute for Research in Fundamental Sciences

 

 

Institute for Studies in Theoretical Physics and Mathematics (IPM)

 

 

 

 

 

School of Cognitive Sciences (SCS)

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Ph.D. Thesis                                                                                                Cognitive Science, Brain and Cognition

 

 

 

 

 

Brain State Dependent Role of Attention in Perceptual Processing and Decision Making

 

 

 

 

 

Supervisor: Professor Hossein Esteky

 

 

 

 

 

March, 2011

 

برای رعایت حریم خصوصی نام نگارنده پایان نامه درج نمی شود

 

(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)

 

تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :

 

(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)

 

Abstract

 

Attention to a specific target or location in visual space enhances the baseline activity of the cells representing the target or the spatial location. Attention can also be directed based on the expectations. Attention mediated enhanced baseline activity is correlated with improved object recognition. To explore the relation of visual attention with neural baseline activity, cortical sensory processing and the behavioral choice we recorded the activity of single cells in the inferior temporal cortex of monkeys during two different tasks. The tasks were a passive fixation and a two-alternative forced choice categorization of noisy body and object images. We found enhanced neural activity in categorization task compared to the passive fixation task. Both body and object selective cells showed significantly more response enhancement for their preferred category compared to the non-preferred category. No such response enhancement was observed in trials when the monkeys made a wrong choice in the categorization task. Magnitude of the response enhancement was larger for more noisy stimuli. More importantly, in trials with high baseline activity responses of body selective and object selective cells to body images were enhanced and suppressed, respectively. We also found decreased neural response variability in the categorization compared to the passive task. Larger effects were observed at higher noise levels. By measuring choice probability we found that neural firing rate was correlated with monkeys’ choice, particularly in trials with high baseline activity. We suggest that attentional enhancement of IT cells’ baseline firing rate is correlated with improved neural response reliability and category selectivity. These effects are dependent on the cells’ category selectivity, attentional load and the exact time of baseline activity increase.

 

 

 

Keywords: object recognition, neural baseline activity, visual attention, decision making

 

 

 

 

 

Table of Contents

 

Introduction…………………………………………………………………..….10

 

 

1. The crucial role of “visual object categorization: in everyday life…………10

 

1. Where in the brain is category information represented? ……………………11

 

1. Anatomy of inferior temporal cortex…………………………….…………23

 

1. Attention improves categorization performance, especially in difficult condition…………………………………………………………………….25

 

1. Bottom-up vs. top-down attention………………………………….………26

 

1. What is attention directed to?………………………………………….……28

    

   1. Space-based attention ……………………………………………….28

    

   1. Feature-based attention………………………………………………28

    

   1. Object-based attention…………………………………..…..….……29

 

1. Sources and targets of attention in the brain…………………………….…31

 

1. Attention modulates different response properties…………………..……..31

    

   1. Firing rate modulation………………….……………………………32

       

      1. Response enhancement.……………………….…………..…….32

       

      1. Response suppression…………………………………………33
   
   
   
   

 

 

• Baseline enhancement………………………………..………34

 

 

1. Reliability increase……………………………………….………….36

 

1. Response sensitivity increase……………………………….……….37

 

1. Response selectivity modulation…………………………….………38

 

1. Synchronization, oscillation and correlated responses across cell population…………………………………………………………….39

 

Objectives……………………………………………………………………..….42

 

Method……………………………………………………………………………43

 

 

1. Subjects………………………………………………………….…………43

 

1. Stereotactic MRI……………………………………………….…………..43

 

1. Head-post implantation surgery.……………………….…………………..44

 

1. Stimuli…………………………………………………….………………..46

 

1. Tasks…………………………………………………………………………47

    

   1. Passive task…………………………………………………………..47

    

   1. Active task (two-alternative forced-choice body/object categorization)……………………………………………………….47

 

1. Training…………………………………………………….………………50

 

1. Eye monitoring………………………………………………….………….52

 

1. Craniotomy surgery …………………………………………….………….52

 

1. Recording………………………………………………………….……….53

    

   1. Recoded area…………………………………………………….…..54

    

   1. Recording room…………………………………………….………..54

    

   1. Data acquisition setup…………………………………………….…54

    

   1. Noise reduction………………………………………………….…..55

    

   1. Electrode insertion ………………………………………………….56

    

   1. Signal amplification and frequency filtering ……………………….57

 

1. Data analysis……………………………………………………..…………59

    

   1. Category selectivity index…………………………………….……..60

    

   1. High and low baseline trials………………………………….………60

    

   1. RMI (rate modulation index)……………………………………..…61

    

   1. FF (fano factor)………………………………………………….…..61

    

   1. FFMI (fano factor modulation index)…………………………….…61

    

   1. CP (choice probability)………………………………………………62

    

   1. RMI onset……………………………………………………………65

    

   1. Neural/behavioral score……………………………………………..66

    

   1. Peristimulus time histograms (PSTH), normalizing and smoothing ……………………………………………………………………….67

 

 

 

Results…………………………………………………………………………….68

 

Conclusion………………………………………………………………………..88

 

Figures……………………………………………………………………………90

 

 

 

 

 

 

3. Stimulus set …………………………………….……………..….90

 

3. Figure 2. Different noise levels of an exemplar stimulus ……………….…91

 

3. Figure 3. Passive task……………………………………………………….92

 

3. Figure 4. Active task (two-alternative forced-choice body/object categorization…………………………………………………………….…93

 

3. Figure 5. Monkeys’ performance in body/object categorization task. …….95

 

3. Figure 6. The pattern of performance decline as a function of noise level was reverse for bodies and objects …………………………………………….. 96

 

3. Figure 7. Monkeys’ performance in body/object categorization task for subcategories …………………………………………………………..…..97

 

3. Figure 8 .Performance decline between adjacent signal levels in subcategories of bodies and objects ……………………………….………98

 

3. Figure 9. Behavioral d́ (d́ = Z “hit rate” – Z “false alarm”) in different visual signals ……………………………………………………………….…….. 99

 

3. Figure 10. Cumulative d́ in signal level of 90 ……………………….……100

 

3. Figure 11. Reaction time in different signal conditions in correct and wrong trials……………………………………………………………………….101

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

12. Figure 12. Reaction time in subcategory level……………………………102

 

12. Figure 13. Relation between reaction time and performance in different signal levels…………………………………………………………….…103

 

12. Figure 14. Mean number of microsaccades in different noise levels……..104

 

12. Figure 15. Mean number of microsaccades in correct and wrong trials of different signal levels……………………………………………………..105

 

12. Figure 16. Reaction time in trials with and without microsaccades in different signal levels…………………………………………………..…106

 

12. Figure 17. Normalized mean firing rate of body cells across different visual signals and behavioral conditions…………………………………….…..107

 

12. Figure 18. Normalized mean firing rate of non-body cells across different visual signals and behavioral conditions…………………………………..109

 

12. Figure 19.Response modulation index (RMI) as a function of task difficulty……………………………………………………………….….111

 

12. Figure 20. Mean response modulation onset across body image signal levels in body cells’ correct trials…………………………………………….….112

 

12. Figure 21. Attentional enhancement of IT cells’ body-object discriminability (d’) was observed only in correct trials and degree of enhancement depended on task difficulty………………………………………………………..…114

 

12. Figure 22. Mean d’ modulation in correct (blue) and wrong (black) compared to passive condition in body cells…………………………………………116

 

12. Figure 23. Mean d’ modulation in correct (blue) and wrong (black) compared to passive condition in non-body cells……………………………………117

 

12. Figure 24. Temporal pattern of baseline firing rate modulation in active compared to passive condition…………………………………………….118

 

12. Figure 25. Temporal pattern of p-values of t-tests measuring significant increase of baseline rate in active compared to passive condition……..…119

 

12. Figure 26. Frequency distribution of proportion of HBTs in body (top) and non-body (bottom) cells during active task…………………………….…120

 

12. Figure 27. Baseline dependent enhancement of body and suppression of non-body cells’ responses to presentation of body images in correct condition……………………………………………………………….….121

 

12. Figure 28. Baseline dependent enhancement of body and suppression of non-body cells’ responses to presentation of body images in wrong condition………………………………………………………………..…122

 

12. Figure 29. Temporal dynamic of body and non-body cells’ RMI to presentation of body images in correct and wrong conditions for HBTs………………………………………………………………………123

 

12. Figure 30. Temporal dynamic of body and non-body cells’ RMI to presentation of body images in correct and wrong conditions for LBTs…124

 

12. Figure 31. P-values of t-tests measuring significant enhancement of body and suppression of non-body cells’ responses in HBTs as time window to define high baseline activity varied over time…………………………….125

 

12. Figure 32. P-values of t-tests measuring significantly larger RMI values of body and smaller RMI values of non-body cells’ in HBTs vs. LBTs as time window to define high vs. low baseline activity varied over time…….….126

 

12. Figure 33. Body cells’ RMI values of high and low baseline trials across body stimulus signal levels…………………………………………….…127

 

12. Figure 34. Baseline dependent modulation of body and non-body cells’ responses to presentation of object images…………………………….…129

 

12. Figure 35. Baseline dependent modulation of body and non-body cells’ responses to presentation of object images…………………………….…130

 

12. Figure 36. Temporal dynamics of body and non-body cells’ RMI to presentation of object images in correct and wrong conditions for HBTs………………………………………………………………………131

 

12. Figure 37. Temporal dynamics of body and non-body cells’ RMI to presentation of object images in correct and wrong conditions for LBTs………………………………………………………………………132

 

12. Figure 38. Frequency distribution of adjusted RMI values for body and non-body cells in HBTs and LBTs………………………………………….…133

 

12. Figure 39. Rate-matched fano factor modulation index (FFMI) of body and non-body cells to presentation of body images in correct condition for HBTs vs. LBTs………………………………………………………………..…134

 

12. Figure 40. Rate-matched fano factor modulation (FFMI) of body and non-body cells to presentation of object images in correct conditions for HBTs and LBTs. …………………………………………………………………135

 

12. Figure 41a. Frequency distribution of normalized d’ modulation difference in LBTs vs. HBTs for body and non-body cells…………………………..136

 

12. Figure 41b. The impact of task specific attentional modulation on firing rate depends on cells’ category selectivity……………………………………..137

 

12. Figure 42. The impact of task specific attentional modulation on firing rate depends on cells’ category selectivity………………………………….…138

 

12. Figure 43. Comparison of RMI values of correct vs. wrong trials of LBTs and HBTs……………………………………………………………….…139

 

12. Figure 44. Comparison of rate modulation in body and non-body cells population across trials of body images with different baseline spike counts……………………………………………………………………..140

 

12. Figure 45. Comparison of rate modulation in body and non-body cells population across trials of object images with different baseline spike counts………………………………………………………………….….142

 

12. Figure 46. Baseline dependent correlation of neural activity and behavioral choice…………………………………………………………………..…143

 

12. Figure 47. Correlation between CP and cells’ body/object discrimination power………………………………………………………………………144

 

12. Figure 48. CP values of body cells plotted against the HBTs proportion in active task………………………………………………………………….145

 

12. Figure 49. RMI values of body cells plotted against the HBTs proportion in active task…………………………………………………………………146

 

12. Figure 50. Attentional modulation of baseline and evoked response in 30 low baseline cells…………………………………………………………147

 

12. Figure 51. Attentional modulation of baseline and evoked response in 30 low baseline cells…………………………………………………………148

 

12. Figure 52. Percent of HBT in active is plotted vs. percent of HBT in passive for 14 body and 16 non-body cells………………………………………..149

 

12. Figure 53. RMI of low baseline body and non-body cells in different stimulus and choice conditions……………………………………………150

 

12. Figure 54. RMI of low baseline body and non-body cells in different stimulus and choice conditions……………………………………………151

 

12. Figure 55. Percent of HBT is active vs. percent of HBT in passive………152

 

12. Figure 56. A combination of baseline firing rate and evoked response modulation in active compared with passive conditions affects monkeys’ performance…………………………………………………………….…153

 

12. Figure 57. Polar plots of IT cells activity show that baseline dependent differential response of IT cell subpopulations determines monkey’s choice…………………………………………………………………..…155

 

Appendix1: Stimulus set……………………………………………….……….158

 

Appendix2: List of abbreviations………………………………………………164

 

References………………………………………………………………………..166

 

Introduction

 

 

 

The crucial role of “visual object categorization” in everyday life

 

Our normal life relies on ability of visual object recognition or determining the identity of a seen object. We recognize different familiar or novel objects in everyday life. We do this with no or little effort, despite the fact that these objects may vary in form, color, illumination, view, size or texture from time to time. Based on both behavioral and neural data there are different levels of object recognition. When we see Einstein’s face, first we detect it as a “face” (supraordinate level), perceive as a “human face” (ordinate level) and then “Einstein’s face” (subordinate level). Spector and Kanwisher explored the sequence of processing steps in object recognition by asking human subjects to do three different tasks: object detection, categorization and identification. Accuracy and reaction time were similar for object detection and categorization showing that “as soon as you know it is there, you know what it is” (Spector and Kanwisher, 2005). On the other hand, lower accuracy and longer reaction time was observed for identification compared to categorization, introducing them as different steps of object recognition. Compatible with behavioral data firing patterns of single cells in inferior temporal cortex, a cortical area involved in object recognition, convey the information about categorization and identification with different latencies. Earliest part of the response (~120 ms after stimulus presentation) represents information about categorization while more detailed information about members of category started ~50 ms later (Sugase et al., 1999). Therefore, visual cortex processes information from global to fine in a hierarchical fashion.  It has been suggested that categorization relies on the “presence or absence of features”, whereas identification is based on “configurational judgments”.

 

“Visual object categorization” or our ability to classify objects by giving meaning to our environment enables us to interact normally and efficiently with objects and events. There are some defined classes of objects in our mind. They usually share some major common properties in their appearance, while at the same time there are lots of differences among their members. For example, trees usually grow from the earth, they have roots, stem and usually green leaves. While they have similar properties, each of the species has a set of specific characteristics. But we call all of them trees, and also easily classify any new member as tree, even if we have not seen something like it before. This fascinating ability of categorization objects is vital for our survival. We know special traits for different object categories. We have learned how to treat and interact with any of them, depending on their characteristics. For example, classifying a rod-shaped moving object as “snake” makes us to run away as fast as possible. We perform this task easily and rapidly under very different conditions and even in noisy environment. Behavioral studies in human have shown that they can recognize animals in a cluttered picture which is presented only for 20ms with reaction times less than 400ms and 95% accuracy (Thorpe et al., 1996; Keysers et al., 2001). Monkeys showed even faster reaction times (Fabre-Thorpe et al., 1998). Monkeys could categorize food and trees with reaction times less than 250ms (Vogels, 1999a). Single cell studies in macaque inferior temporal (IT) cortex have revealed that category response latency is less than 100ms from stimulus onset (Vogels, 1999b; Kiani et al., 2005; Perrett et al., 1982).

 

 

 

Where in the brain is category information represented?

 

Neural mechanisms of and cortical areas involved in visual object categorization are among the hottest areas in field of cognitive neuroscience. Exploring the underlying mechanisms of visual categorization in the activity of single neurons of a special cortical area is based on what Santiago Ramon Cajal proposed by “Neuron Doctrine” over a century ago. He showed that nervous system is not one continuous web but a network of discrete cells. According to “Neuron Doctrine” individual neurons are the basic structural and functional units of the nervous system. This finding led to a new view of brain function called “Cellular Connectionism”. Based on this view, individual neurons are the signaling units of the brain; they are generally arranged in functional groups and connect to one another in a precise fashion and different behaviors are produced by different brain regions interconnected by specific neural pathways (Kandel, 2000).

 

Visual cortices are regions of the brain dedicated to the process of visual information. There is a “feed-forward flow

 

 of visual information” in these cortical areas. Visual information after reaching the eyes extends from the retina to the primary visual cortex (V1) and then the secondary visual cortex (V2). After V2, visual information goes through two different visual pathways:

 

 

1. Dorsa visual pathway or “what” pathway, involved in motion detection and visumotor tasks

 

1. Ventral visual pathway or “where” pathway, involved in object recognition

 

 

 

Understanding and recognition of shape of visual objects are completed in ventral visual pathway of the brain. Across the ventral visual pathway, there is a flow of visual information from the lower level visual areas (V1 & V2) into mid level (V4) and then to the high level visual area (IT) (Merigan & Maunsell, 1993). There is also a hierarchical organization even along the subareas of IT cortex. These intrinsic connections in the IT cortex were studied by Fujita & Fujita (1996). They showed that these connections were distributed in an anisotropic manner (fibers go through anteroposterior direction more than mediolateral direction) around the injection of the tracer showing the continuous feed-forward flow of visual information even in these subareas. Along with this feed-forward flow of visual information there is a hierarchical processing of the visual information. Reflected light from visual stimuli after entering the eyes is converted into electrical signals by photoreceptors and ganglion cells in the retina which respond optimally to contrast and small spots of light in their small receptive fields resulting in decomposition of visual stimuli into a pattern of small spots. Progressive convergence of input from retina and LGN (lateral geniculate nucleus) to the primary visual cortex (V1) leads to some feature abstraction. The outline of a visual image is decomposed into spots in retina and then recomposed into short line segments of various orientations by simple and complex cells in V1 cortex (Hubel & Wiesel, 1962). The visual pathway extends from V1 to V2. V2 neurons continue the analysis of contours begun by V1 neurons. Response of many V2 neurons to illusory lines just as real edges shows that the feature abstraction is in progress through the visual stream (Kandel, 2000). To clarify the progressive abstraction of visual information processing from V2 to downstream cortices, Kobatake & Tanaka (1994) defined an index based on the ratio of the maximum neural response to simple stimuli to the maximum neural response to all other stimuli in their image set (both simple and complex stimuli). The distribution of this ratio shifted from 1 toward 0 step by step from V2 to anterior IT. They showed that in macaque monkeys,  the best stimulus of cells in V2 were just simple shapes, in V4 and posterior IT were both simple and complex features and the cells selective to complex features were intermingled in single penetrations with cells that responded maximally to some simple features. They also found that neurons of anterior IT were just selective to complex features. They suggested that local neuronal networks in V4 and posterior IT play an essential role in the abstraction of simple features into complex object features. These findings are consistent with “Feature Detection Theory”, one of the main theories in object recognition. According to this theory, the object perception proceeds by recognizing individual features, such as back, seat, arms and base of a chair, and assembling them into a coherent pattern, or chair.

متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان انگلیسی

 

 

 

 

 

عنوان : پایان نامه زبان انگلیسی :Critical Pedagogy and Language Teaching at Iranian Schools: Where Are We?

 

 

 

 

University of Yasouj

 

 

Faculty of Literature and Humanities

 

 

Department of English Language and Literature

 

 

 

 

 

M.A. Thesis

 

 

 

 

 

Critical Pedagogy and Language Teaching at Iranian Schools: Where Are We?

 

 

 

 

 

Supervisers:

 

 

Dr. Goudarz Alibakhshi

 

 

                                                       Dr. Rouhallah Zarei

 

 

 

 

 

September 2011

 

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ABSTRACT:

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Critical pedagogy (CP) in English language teaching(ELT) is an attitude to language teaching which relates the classroom context to the wider social context and aims at social transformation through education (Akbari, 2008). It seems that the main principles and assumptions underlying CP can, to a great extent, influence the process, outcomes, possible dangers, and effectiveness of learning and teaching English in non-English-speaking countries. Despite the great emphasis laid on the importance of being critical, it is not really known whether or not Iranian English language teachers are aware of critical pedagogy in ELT. In other words, this study attempted to find out to what extent Iranian LTs are critical and what are the main obstacles which prevent them from being critical. For the purposes of this study, 100 language teachers holding BA in English were selected through stratified random sampling from Lorestan and Kuhgiluieh & Boyerahmad provinces. At first, a questionnaire consisting of 30 items in 7 dimensions was developed and administered to the  participants to find out whether they are aware of principles and premises of critical pedagogy or not. Then, a face to face in-depth interview was conducted with a representative sample of participants (those who were familiar with critical pedagogy) to find the main barriers of applying critical pedagogy in schools. The data were analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics and grounded theory. The results of the study showed that most of the Iranian language teachers are aware of principles and premises of critical pedagogy. Results also indicted that organizational, personal, and learner’s barriers were the main obstacles of applying critical pedagogy in schools.

 

Key words: critical pedagogy, ELT, language teachers, Iranian language teachers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

This thesis is dedicated to

 

My parents

 

Who are my very first teachers

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

 

I would like to express my gratitude to all those who supported me and helped me while I was writing this thesis. My first and foremost thanks go to my supervisors, Dr. Goudarz Alibakhshi and Dr. Rouhallah Zaarei for their immeasurable guidance and assistance in writing my thesis.

 

I would like to express my sincere appreciation to all English language teachers from both Lorestan and Kuhgiluieh & Boyerahmad provinces who participated in this study for the time and information they provided. A special thanks to my friends and classmates for their ongoing support, encouragement, and advice.

 

Finally, I am particularly grateful to my family who always encouraged me to the best I could and always remind me that success is found through the acquisition of knowledge. To all of you who assisted in helping me to complete this process: the result is as much yours as it is mine.

 

Thank You.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Table of Contents

 

ABSTRACT……………………………………………………………………..…ir

 

DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………iii

 

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT………………………………………………………….iv

 

TABLE OF CONTENTS……………………………………………………….…v

 

LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………….….viii

 

CHAPTER I: INTRODUCTION………………………………………………..…1

 

1.1 General Background………………………………………………..….1

 

1.2 Statement of Problem……………………………………………….…5

 

1.3 Objectives of the Study ………………………………………….……..6

 

1.4 Significance of the Study …………………………………………..….6

 

1.5 Definitions of Key Terms……………………………………………….6

 

1.6 Outline of the Study………………………………………………..…..8

 

CHAPTER II: LITERATURE REVIEW……………………………………….…10

 

2.1 Introduction………………………………………………………….…10

 

2.2 History of Critical Pedagogy……………………………………….…..10

 

2.3 Theoretical Bases of Critical Pedagogy………………………….….….10

 

2.4 Critical Applied Linguistics…………………………………………….19

 

2.4.1 Domains of Critical Applied Linguistics……………………………20

 

2.4.1.1 Critical Discourse Analysis and Critical Literacy……………..…20

 

2.4.1.2 Critical Approaches to Translation…………………………….…22

 

2.4.1.3 Critical Approaches to Language Education…………………..…22

 

2.4.1.4 Critical Language Testing……………………………………..…25

 

2.4.1.5 Critical Approaches to Language Planning and Language Rights.26

 

2.4.1.6 Critical Approaches to Language, Literacy, and Workplace Setting27

 

2.5 Critical Frameworks……………………………………………………………28

 

2.6 Critical Language Pedagogy………………………………………………………….. 30

 

2.6.1 Linguistic Imperialism………………………………………………………30

 

2.6.2 Methods as a Colonial Construct…………………………………………….31

 

2.6.3 Postmethod as a Postcolonial Construct…………………………………..…33

 

2.7 Empirical Research……………………………………………………………….……35

 

CHAPTER III: METHODOLOGY…………………………………………………….…39

 

3.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………..………39

 

3.2 Design of the Study………………………………………………..……………39

 

3.3 Participants………………………………………………………………………40

 

3.4 Instrumentation…………………………………………..………………………40

 

3.5 Data Analysis………………………………………………………….…………41

 

3.6 Procedure of the Study……………………………………………………………42

 

CHAPTER IV: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION……………………………………………………….. 43

 

4.1 Introduction……………………………………………………………………………………………….43

 

4.2 Quantitative Results………………………………………..………………………..43

 

4.3 Results for Question 1…………………………………………………………………………………51

 

4.4 Qualitative Results……………………………………………………………….64

 

4.5 Discussions……………………………………………………………………….72

 

CHAPTER V: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION, & IMPLICATION…………………….80

 

5.1 Introduction………………………………………………………………………………………………..80

 

5.2 Summary of the Study…………………………………………………………………………………80

 

5.3 Implications of the Study……………………………………………………………………………..82

 

5.4 Limitations of the Study ………………………………………………………….84

 

5.5 Suggestions for Further Research………………………………………………………………….84

 

REFERENCES…………………………………………………………………………………………………………..86

 

APPENDICES……………………………………………………………………………………………………………95

 

Appendix I: The Last Version of Inventory…………………………………………………………..95

 

Appendix II: Results of Confirmatory Factor Analysis…………………….……………..….98

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

LIST OF TABLES

 

 

 

Table 4.1: 41 item-inventory of critical pedagogy……………………………….41

 

Table 4.2: Component matrix for dimension 1…………………………………..46

 

Table 4.3: Component matrix for dimension 2…………………………………..47

 

Table 4.4: Component matrix for dimension 3…………………………………..47

 

Table 4.5: Component matrix for dimension 4…………………………………..48

 

Table 4.6: Component matrix for dimension 5…………………………………..49

 

Table 4.7: Component matrix for dimension 6……………………………….….50

 

Table 4.8: Component matrix for dimension 7………………………………..…50

 

Table 4.9: Descriptive statistics for participants’ responses to dimension 1…….52

 

Table 4.10: Inferential statistics for dimension 1……………………………..…54

 

Table 4.11: Descriptive statistics for participants’ responses to dimension 2…..55

 

Table 4.12: Inferential statistics for dimension 2……………………………….56

 

Table 4.13: Descriptive statistics for participants’ responses to dimension 3…..57

 

Table 4.14: Inferential statistics for dimension 3…………………………….…57

 

Table 4.15: Descriptive statistics for participants’ responses to dimension 4.…58

 

Table 4.16: Inferential statistics for dimension 4………………………….……59

 

Table 4.17: Descriptive statistics for participants’ responses to dimension 5…60

 

Table 4.18: Inferential statistics for dimension 6………………………………61

 

Table 4.19: Descriptive statistics for participants’ responses to dimension 6…61

 

Table 4.20: Inferential statistics for dimension 6………………………………62

 

Table 4.21: Descriptive statistics for participants’ responses to dimension 7…63

 

Table 4.22: Inferential statistics for dimension 7………………………………64

 

 

 

 

 

 

CHAPTER I

 

Introduction

 

1.1. General background

 

Critical pedagogy is an educational theory that aims to make students conscious of the many institutions that exist to facilitate and perpetuate systematic forms of oppression, both within and outside the classroom (Hollestin, 2006). Canagarajah (2005) argues that Critical pedagogy is not a set of ideas, but a way of ‘doing’ learning and teaching. It is a practice motivated by a distinct attitude toward classrooms and society. Critical students and teachers are prepared to situate learning in the relevant social contexts, unravel the implications of power in pedagogical activity, and commit themselves to transforming the means and ends of learning in order to construct more egalitarian, equitable, and ethical educational and social environments .Students exist in a very complex and constantly changing world; it is the responsibility of teachers to prepare students to live in this world. By implementing critical pedagogy, teachers can help students develop the essential skills they need to deal with a complex and ever changing world (Bassy, 1999).

 

Teachers can enable students to make critical analyses of the ideologies underpinning all forms of discourse without necessarily promoting a specific value system (Hardin, 2001). The acquired skills by critical pedagogy will prepare students to question the status quo critically, examine the hidden power structures that exist in society, and enable them to facilitate change in order to create a democratic, equitable, and fair world (Giroux, 2001). Critical pedagogy for the first time appeared in realm of education by Paulo Freire (1970). He introduced such concepts as banking theory, dialogical method, and transformative education. In the banking model of education, he argued, knowledge was another commodity to be transferred as efficiently as possible from sender to receiver. As an alternative to this system of education, Freire (1970) proposed that education should be a dialogical process in which students and teachers share their experiences in a non-hierarchical manner.

 

Pedagogical theories of philosopher John Dewey (1933) have a great impact on critical pedagogy movement. In his book democracy and education, he asserted that education must be a transformative experience. Dewey believed that ideal classroom should be a place where students use trial and error to develop needed skills for engaging in a genuine or an ethical democratic citizenship. Pennycook (1990) as one of the great exponent of critical pedagogy believed that there are two elements at the heart of all critical pedagogy theories: a notion of critique that includes a sense of possibility for transformation and an exploration of the nature of and relationship between culture, knowledge, and power. Viewing schools as cultural areas where diverse ideological and social forms are in constant struggle, critical pedagogy examines schools both in their contemporary sociopolitical content and their historical context (Pennycook, 1990).

 

Giroux (1989) argued for pedagogy of and for difference, a pedagogy that not only respect student’s voice and difference, but also relates these differences to the wider social order, creating the democratic sense of respect for difference that is essential for any notion of equality in society. Critical pedagogy (CP) is like a tree with some very central branches, the basic principles. ‘Empowerment’ is one of those very main branches of great moment in CP. It is mainly concerned with developing in students and teachers the self-esteem to question the power relations in the society (McLaren, 2003), thus gain the voice they deserve in the same society. CP looks at education as a political enterprise (Kincheloe, 2008) and aims to raise students’ “consciousness”, a term borrowed from Freire, to make them more aware of the power games in the society and their own position in that game. It is the “pedagogy of inclusion” (Pennycook, 2001) and has in large part been created to give the marginalized students the “right to speak” (Peirce, 1989, 1995, 1997).

 

Calderson (2003) discusses the notion of critical pedagogy as the guiding educational philosophy in community-based education. Milner (2000) examines how teachers can begin to pose critical questions regarding race through critical pedagogy. Many of the scholarly articles examine the inequalities of race that exist in education. In other cases, issues of gender, ethnicity, and cultural inequalities are addressed. Discerning these inequalities is essential for bringing about change. Generally, classrooms try to mirror in organizations what students and teachers would collectively like to see in the world outside of schools: respect for everyone’s ideas, tolerance of differences, a commitment to creativity and social and educational justice, the importance of working collectively, a willingness and desire to work hard for betterment of humanity, a commitment to anti-racist, anti-sexist, and anti-homophobic practices, etc (McLaren, 2005).

 

However, critical pedagogy brings with it the reminder that learners must be free to be themselves, to think for themselves, to behave intellectually without coercion from powerful elite, to cherish their beliefs and traditions and cultures without the threat of forced change (Brown, 2000).Critical pedagogy conceives the pedagogical site as a problematic space of racial, moral, and social tensions requiring deep interjections of social justice and civic courage. Giroux (1993) argues that schools are more than instructional place; they are cultural sites that actively are involved in the selective ordering and legitimization of particular forms of language, reasoning sociality, daily experience and style. According to McLaren̉ (1989 a), the aim is to integrate students’ abilities of critical reflections with their aspirations and potentials for social engagement and transformation.

 

Norton and Toohey (2004) argue that “advocates of critical approaches to second language teaching are interested

 

 in relationships between language learning and social change. From this point of view, language is not simply a means of expression or communication; rather it is a practice that constructs, and is constructed by, the way language learners understand themselves, their social surroundings, their histories, and their possibilities for the futureˮ.  In order to construct a critical pedagogy for language classroom, there is the need to change that belief of language teachers and many others. Second/foreign language learning should be seen as “education rather than an acquisition of a skill” (Guilherme, 2002, p. 189).

 

Sadeghi (2008) pointed out that the conventional language classrooms do little to advocate change in students’ social cognition since they do not address the issues of socio-political and cultural issues adequately. In other words, the shadow of a critical pedagogy is far too blur to cause what Sadeghi (2008) called a “transformational effect” on the learners. Akbari (2008) argues that implementation of a critical model in any local ELT context has a number of requirements, among which decentralization of decision making (in terms of content, teaching methodology, and testing) is of crucial importance. He, also, discusses that as long as course contents and testing methods are decided upon by ministries in capitals, ELT classes suffer from vague generalities and socio-political numbness. The great potential CP has in curriculum development and student empowerment will be actualized only when education, and by extension ELT, develops the required attitude, starts at the local level, and acknowledges the significance of learners’ experiences as legitimate departure points in any meaningful learning enterprise.

 

Despite the great importance laid on critical pedagogy and its implications in ELT and the importance of TEFL in Iran educational system, no one has ever tried to investigate the status of critical pedagogy implications in EFL teaching in Iranian High schools. This study is an attempt to probe into the use of CP in EFL classrooms and the barriers in the use of such an approach.

 

1.2 Statement of the Problem

 

Critical pedagogy (Freire, 1970) in general and critical applied linguistics (Pennycook, 2001 &Philipson 1992) in particular influenced ELT curriculum in almost all parts of the world. It seems that the main principles and assumptions underlying CP can to a great extent influence the process, outcomes, possible dangers, and effectiveness of learning and teaching English to non-speaking countries. English in Iran, like the other countries, is taught as a foreign language at junior high schools, high schools, and at tertiary levels. Therefore, it can lead to both negative and positive educational, racial, and cultural consequences. Despite the great emphasis laid on the importance of being critical, it is not really known whether Iranian English language teachers are all aware of Critical pedagogy in ELT. More specifically, it is not yet known whether different components of ELT curriculum which is widely practiced in educational system of Iran including textbook development, teaching styles and strategies, and testing methods and outcomes are all in line with principles of critical pedagogy. Moreover, it is not known whether Iranian English teachers pay attention to individual differences, needs, and perceptions, students negative and positive attitudes to what happens in an ELT setting, and learners᾽ involvement in teaching and learning process. In addition, the main barriers in following critical pedagogy principles in ELT classrooms are not still known.

متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان المانی

 

 

 

 

 

عنوان : پایان نامه رشته زبان آلمانی:DasStundenBuchRilke11final_anhang

 

 

 

 

عنوان : پایان نامه رشته زبان آلمانی:DasStundenBuchRilke11final_anhang

 

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Vorwort

 

Die vorliegende Arbeit ist eine Untersuchung, die zu einem besonderen Standpunkt in der Literatur führt. Die Rilke-Literatur  bzw. Rilkes Dicthung ist ein gutes Beispiel für die Anwendung der Semiotik, ein tiefgehender Begriff in der Literatur ist.

 

Da Literatur und die Semiotik (ein Teilbreich der Sprachwissenschaft) mit den Themen beschäftigt sind, die für Studenten der Fachrichtung “DaF” sehr bedeutsam und lehrreich sein und sie durch diese wertvolle Einsichten in die Literatur gewinnen können, zählt dieses Thema zu einer wichtigen Unterrichtseinheit für DaF-Studenten.

 

Am Ende möchte ich mich bei meiner Betreuerin Frau Doktor Derakhshan Moghaddam für ihre hilfsreichen Hinweise und Unterstützung und bei meiner Mitbetreuerin  Frau Doktor Goudarzpour bedanken. Die Vollendung der Arbeit verdanke ich den kritischen Ansichten von Frau Rafiee, die auf meiner Arbeit viel Acht gegeben, und die Arbeit sorgfältig durchgelesen hat. Und zum Schluss möchte ich mich bei all denjenigen bedanken, die mir zur Anfertigung dieser Magisterarbeit viel geholfen haben.

 

Einleitung

 

In dieser Arbeit wird zunächst das Konzept “Semiotik” und deren Anwendung in der Literatur betrachtet und untersucht.

 

Danach wird den berühmten Autor “Rainer Maria Rilke” vorgestellt, der zu den Dichtern des zwanzigsten Jahrhunderts zählte und diesen Stil in seiner Dichtungen angewandet hat. Um der Zeitraum und die Art und Weise der Entstehungsart solcher Gedichter zu verdeutlichen, wird auf den Lebenslauf Rilkes viel Acht gegeben. Er war ein autobiografischer Autor. Seine Werke sind von seiner Biografie tief beeinflusst.

 

Der Hauptteil der Arbeit teilt sich in sieben Kapitel. In erstem Kapitel wird  das semiotische Feld präsentiert. Das zweite Kapitel enthält das Leben und die Werke des Dichters “Rainer Maria Rilke”. Ein weiteres Kapitel enthält eine Erläuterung über “Das Stundenbuch“.  Anschließend werden in drei Kapiteln die Gedichte des ersten Buches „Vom mönschichen Leben“ aus der semiotischen Sicht überprüft. Diese war sehr vielfältige Arbeit, da drei verschiedene Breiche untersucht werden mussten: zuerst über “Semiotik”, die selbst ein ausführlicher Begriff ist, was ich nur sehr zusammenfassend untersucht und in der Arbeit gebracht habe, dann über die Biografie des berühmten Schriftstellers “Rainer Maria Rilke” und sein Werk “Das Stundenbuch” und schließlich über den wichtigsten Teil der Arbeit “Interpretation der Gedichte im Stundenbuch aus der semiotischen Sicht”.

 

Um meine Ziele zu erreichen, habe ich folgende Schritte durchgeführt:

 

 

• Im ersten Schritt habe ich die Verse mit Hilfe von Übersetzung des Buches untersucht.

 

• Im zweiten Schritt, habe ich die in den Gedichten versteckten Symbole gefunden.

 

• Im nächsten Schritt, sind die entdeckten Symbole anhand vorheriger und folgender Sätze bzw. Im Zusammenhang mit anderen Wörtern und Sätze, überprüft.

 

• Im vierten Schritt, noch einmal die Symbole kontrolliert und erneuert.

 

• Im letzten Schritt, sind die Metaphernsorte und die Vergleichen markiert.

 

Eine große Schwierigkeit der Arbeit lag darin, dass die geringe Verwendung von Zitaten einen selbst Produktiven Arbeit zu verleihen.

 

Zum Schluss im siebten Kapitel ist die Schlussfolgerung verfasst. Im Anhang ist die vollständige Übersetzung von “Stundenbuch” durch Herrn Ali Abdollahi beigefügt.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Semiotik

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

1. Semiotik

 

1.1.Definition

 

Die Semiotik ist ein Spezialgebiet der Sprachwissenschaft und befasst sich mit dem Zeichen aller Art bzw. die Wissenschaft von den Zeichen, Zeichensystem und Symbole in der Natur und Kultur. Ebenfalls ist “Semiotik”, ein Teilgebiet der Erkenntnistheorie, Philosophie und Wissenschaftstheorie.(Vgl. de.Wikipedia.org/wiki/Semiotik: 28.7.2013, 12:45)

 

Die Ansätze der Zeichendefinitionen und somit der Semiotik reichen von der Funktion des Zeichens als Informationslieferant bis hin zum Kommunikationsmittel. Sie umfasst nicht nur empirische, sondern auch philosophisch-subjektive Ansätze, um des Zeichens auf den Kommunikation. Die Semiotik untersucht nach Sottong(1998, 11- 12) „einen zentralen Bereich der Kultur, das Funktionieren von Zeichen und Kodes in der menschlichen Kommunikation“.(Sottong: 1998: 11f.)

 

 

 

1.2. Geschichte

 

Obwohl der Begriff “Semiotik” seit der Antike erörtet ist, sind Ferdinand de Saussure(1857-1913) und Charles Sanders Peirce(1839-1914) als Basislegende Wissenschaftler für die heutige Semiotik berühmt. Peirce mehr als Semiotiker und Saussure als Begründer der modernen Linguistik.

 

Die Zeichenmodell und die Arbiträrität* ist wichtig für die Semiotik. Die Sprache hat eine große Bedeutung für de Saussure. Sie dient de saussure als Gegenstand. Dennoch werden andere Begriffe, wie z.B. das Schriff, das Taubstummenalphabet, symbolische Ritten, militärische Signale, Flaggenkodes, Blinderschriff auch von ihm berücksichtigt.

 

Das Zeichen nach de Saussure besteht aus einem Signifikat, dass die Form des Zeichens bestimmt und dem Signifikanten, der den Inhalt, die Bedeutung wiedergibt.

 

Von Peirce wurde auch die Textsemiotik geprägt. Die Zeichentheorie von Peirce hat zur Grundlage, dass „alles Denken notwendigerweise in Zeichen erfolgt.“ (Nöth: 1985: 35).

 

In der Zeichen-Definition von Peirce ist der relationale bzw. der funktionale Charakter zwischen Zeichen (repräsent), Objekt und Bedeutung (Interprätat) das Wesentliche. Nach Peirce entstehen Zeichen nur im Bewusstsein eines Interpreten, der die Relation zwischen diesen drei Einheiten herstellt.

 

Beide Definitionen stellen aber verschiedene Probleme dar und sind nicht komplett und fehlerfrei.

متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان فرانسه

 

 

گرایش :آموزش

 

 

عنوان : پایان نامه رشته زبان فرانسه :دستور زبان فرانسه در دانشگاه ها و برخی آموزشگاه های زبان در ایران 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

دانشگاه آزاد اسلامی

 

 

واحد تهران مرکزی

 

 

دانشکده زبانهای خارجی    گروه فرانسه

 

 

 

 

 

پایان نامه برای دریافت درجه کارشناسی ارشد(MA)

 

 

 

 

 

گرایش : آموزش

 

 

 

 

 

عنوان :

 

 

 

 

 

دستور زبان فرانسه در دانشگاه ها و برخی آموزشگاه های زبان در ایران 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

استاد راهنما:

 

 

 

 

 

خانم دکتر ندا آتش وحیدی

 

 

 

 

 

استاد مشاور:

 

 

 

 

 

آقای دکتر مهدی حیدری

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

تابستان ١٣٩٢

 

 

برای رعایت حریم خصوصی نام نگارنده پایان نامه درج نمی شود

 

 

(در فایل دانلودی نام نویسنده موجود است)

 

 

تکه هایی از متن پایان نامه به عنوان نمونه :

 

 

(ممکن است هنگام انتقال از فایل اصلی به داخل سایت بعضی متون به هم بریزد یا بعضی نمادها و اشکال درج نشود ولی در فایل دانلودی همه چیز مرتب و کامل است)

 

 

TABLE DES MATIERES

 

 

 

 

 

INTRODUCTION

 

 

 

 

 

Chapitre I : L’historique des méthodes d’enseignement du français en Iran et la place de la grammaire dans chaque méthode

 

 

 

1. Regard sur les courants méthodologiques et l’évolution de la grammaire dans ces méthodologies

    

   • Les différentes méthodes

      

     • La méthode traditionnelle

      

      

     • La méthode naturelle (MN)

      

      

     • La méthode directe

      

      

     • La méthode active

      

      

     • La méthode audio-orale

      

      

     • La méthode audio-visuelle

      

      

    

    

 

 

 

 

2. Approche communicative

 

 

2. Les méthodes privilégiées dans l’enseignement du français en Iran depuis les années soixante-dix

 

 

 

 

 

Chapitre II : Étude comparative des livres de grammaire les plus utilisés par les apprenants iraniens

 

 

 

1. Enseignement de la grammaire française

    

   • Deux raisons pour l’enseignement de la grammaire française :  

    

    

   • Les objectifs principaux des manuels d’enseignement

    

    

 

 

1. « Nouvelle Grammaire du Français, Cours de Civilisation Française de la SORBONNE»  

 

 

1. « Grammaire progressive du français » 

 

 

1. Une comparaison des leçons entre ces deux livres

    

   • Les articles définis et indéfinis

    

    

   • Le Passé composé

    

    

   • Le subjonctif

    

    

 

 

 

 

 

Chapitre III : Analyse du questionnaire

 

 

 

1. Analyse du questionnaire

 

 

1. Conclusion partielle 

 

 

Conclusion

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Introduction

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Le mot grammaire lui-même désigne l’ensemble des règles morphologiques et syntaxiques d’une langue et l’étude de celles-ci. La première grammaire du français apparaît avec Palsgrave en 1526 pour apprendre la langue française à une princesse anglaise qui doit se rendre en France.

 

 

Depuis les années 1970, on a pu assister à un renouveau de la grammaire dans l’enseignement du « français langue étrangère ». On a cessé de voir, dans cette discipline, un simple traité de règles destinées à inculquer aux élèves les normes de la langue écrite, de l’orthographe à la morphosyntaxe.

 

 

Les livres de classe des années 1960 suivaient en effet une ligne conforme à l’ancienne tradition grammaticale, ce qui explique l’absence de manuels de cette époque. L’ancienne grammaire normative dite « traditionnelle » tend donc à s’effacer derrière les grammaires structurales ou génératives, et les auteurs de manuels se libèrent de plusieurs siècles d’influence latine.

 

 

« La didactique de FLE a évolué de manière visible au long de ces dernières années en ce qui concerne les méthodologies et les contenus, mais aussi la pratique grammaticale, qui aurait pu sembler moins sujette à des bouleversements importants : introduction de nouvelles descriptions de la langue, type de pratiques proposées à l’apprenant, place de la grammaire dans l’unité de travail, rôle de l’enseignant. »

 

 

La remise en cause de la grammaire traditionnelle a provoqué de grands bouleversements dans les démarches didactiques. La didactique soulève d’ailleurs

 

 

à l’instar de la grammaire de nombreuses discussions. Pour cette raison, les auteurs cherchent toujours à les moderniser, à les adapter aux besoins de l’élève, à la classe de français, exploitant pour ce faire les différentes théories linguistiques modernes.

 

 

La nouvelle grammaire, loin d’être figée, s’intéresse aux recherches actuelles. Elle doit être un outil d’analyse et de production de la langue, elle incite à la réflexion sur son fonctionnement et a pour principal objectif la maîtrise des normes sociales autant que grammaticales. On insiste d’ailleurs sur la notion de communication, sur les relations humaines que permet, ou du moins que facilite une bonne maîtrise de la langue. Dans les années 1990, on entend certes enseigner l’ « expression » grâce à la grammaire, mais on cherche principalement à former les esprits, à engendrer des mécanismes de compréhension et d’élaboration de la langue. De cette optique découle l’ouverture de la grammaire actuelle aux autres domaines du français.

 

 

 

 

 L’apprentissage de la grammaire doit conduire les élèves à saisir que le respect des règles de l’expression française n’est pas contradictoire avec la liberté d’expression : il favorise au contraire une pensée précise ainsi qu’un raisonnement rigoureux et facilement compréhensible. L’élève doit maîtriser suffisamment les outils de la langue que sont le vocabulaire, la grammaire et l’orthographe pour pouvoir lire, comprendre et écrire des textes dans différents contextes. L’apprentissage de la grammaire et de l’orthographe requiert des exercices spécifiques distincts de l’étude des textes.

 

 

Les causes et les aspects de la diversité et de l’évolution des manuels rendaient intéressante la confrontation de certains d’entre eux dans une étude historique de la transposition didactique de la grammaire. Les manuels ont été retenus en fonction de leur appartenance à trois générations, trois courants qui reflètent bien l’évolution de la didactique au cours de ces dernières années. La rupture avec la grammaire traditionnelle au début des années 1970 était une des phases de cette évolution.

 

 

Pourquoi enseigner la grammaire ?

 

 

 

• Développer la réflexion sur la langue ; en faire comprendre le fonctionnement en système.

 

 

• Faire acquérir un métalangage lié aux besoins de l’analyse et à la catégorisation des faits de langue.

 

 

• Faire acquérir des compétences réflexives à mettre au service des activités langagières.

 

 

• Améliorer la communication, favoriser la compréhension.

 

 

Quand on dit les mots par exemple arbre, chien, ciel que se passe-t-il dans votre tête ? Les images représentants de ces choses viennent à l’esprit. On peut s’exprimer au moyen des signes, au moyen de la parole et au moyen de l’écriture. Le langage est le moyen d’exprimer nos idées, Alors on enseigne la grammaire. Chaque langue a ses règles spéciales qui nous aident à la parler et à l’écrire correctement. Ces règles forment la grammaire. Elle nous enseigne à parler et à écrire sans faire des fautes.

 

 

« La construction de la langue se fait chez le jeune enfant par la recherche de solutions reposant sur la grammaire pour créer de nouveaux mot. »

 

 

Les difficultés des élèves sont le reflet de l’état de la grammaire actuelle. En effet, dans son livre Enseigner la grammaire et le vocabulaire à l’école: Pourquoi ? Comment? Renée Leon dresse un constat alarmant sur la grammaire. Cette dernière dénonce le manque de réflexion sur les finalités de l’enseignement grammatical.

 

 

[1] BOYER. H., BUTZBACH. M., PENDANX. M., Nouvelle introduction à la didactique du français langue étrangère, CLE International, Paris 1990, p.201.

 

 

[2] BARBERY. M., Grammaire une strate de conscience menant à la beauté, Gallimard, Paris 2007, p.2.

 

 

[3] LEON. Renée, Enseigner la grammaire et le vocabulaire à l’école, Hachette, Paris 2008, p.69.