موضوع: "بدون موضوع"
متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان انگلیسی
عنوان : An Investigation into Social Interest An Adlerian Critical Reading of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s Houseand Hedda Gabler in the Light of Psychoanalytical Feminism
Islamic Azad University
Central Tehran Branch
Faculty of Foreign Languages – Department of Postgraduate Studies
A Thesis Submitted to the Department of Postgraduate as a Partial Fulfillment for the Degree of M.A in English Literature
Subject:
An Investigation into Social Interest: An Adlerian Critical Reading of Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s Houseand Hedda Gabler in the Light of Psychoanalytical Feminism
Advisor:
Dr. Razieh Eslamieh
Reader:
Professor Dr. Jalal Sokhanvar
Winter 2015
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Abstract
The present thesis attempts to study Henrik Ibsen’s A Doll’s House and Hedda Gabler in terms of Adlerian theories of Psychoanalytic Feminism and Social Interest. This study defines the process of constructing a female framework; where women are producers of “textual meaning” including the psychodynamics of female creativity, linguistics and the problem of a female language. Adler declares the ways that the female individual interacts with her husband and others can conduct her toward individual gain or collective goals. In addition, women are deprived of some obvious rights, and the only remedy is to understand their social identity which brings them Life Style and Social Interest. Additionally, Adler argues that such psychological force underlies human behavior, especially the dynamic relations between conscious motivation and unconscious motivation. Alfred Adler claims that there isa relation between masculinity and femininity which are crucial for understanding Individual Psychology. In A Doll’s House, the man is universally privileged because of his gender while the woman is suppressed, and Feeling of Inferiority is. It is believed that social law ties women to men forever. Love and sexual relations also proceed in the way men prefer. In Hedda Gabler Hedda, is a woman restricted by Victorian values and trapped in a loveless marriage with aboring man. Her only solace is manipulating others, which easily shows the definition of Social Interest in the drama. In sum, this study addresses a number of points in demonstrating the real position of woman in the society and their feeling about the society.
Keywords
Psychoanalytic Feminism, Social Interest, Life Style, Individual Psychology
Table of Content
Acknowledgments. iii
Abstract iv
Dedication. v
Chapter One: Introduction. 1
1.1. General Overview.. 1
1.2. Statement of the Problem.. 4
1.3. Significance of the Study. 7
1.4. Approach and Methodology. 9
1.5. Review of Literature. 12
1.5.1. Definition of Key Terms. 15
1.5.2. Limitation/ Delimitation. 17
1.6. Organization of the Study. 18
Chapter Two: Alfred Adler and His Theories in the Light of Feminism.. 20
2.1. Introduction. 20
2.2. Introduction to Adlerian Theory. 21
2.2.1. Alfred Adler’s Biography. 22
2.2.2. Individual Psychology. 24
2.2.3. Social Interest 26
2.2.4. Life Style. 31
2.2.5. The Final Goal 33
2.2.6. Fictional Finalism and Striving towards Superiority. 36
2.2.7. Feeling of Inferiority and Inferiority Complex. 38
2.3. Feminist psychology. 40
2.3.1. Feminist Jurisprudence. 41
2.3.2. Masculine Protest 44
2.3.3. Feminism and Disability. 45
2.4. Concluding Remarks. 45
Chapter Three: Adlerian Psychoanalytic Feminism in A Doll’s House. 47
3.1. Introduction. 47
3.2. Individual Psychology in A Doll’s House. 48
3.2.1. Social Interest in A Doll’s House. 54
3.2.2. Life Style in A Doll’s House. 58
3.2.3. The Final Goal in A Doll’s House. 61
3.2.4. Feeling of Inferiority in A Doll’s House. 63
3.2.5. Fictional Finalism and Striving towards Superiority in A Doll’s House. 65
3.3. Feminist Psychology in A Doll’s House. 67
3.3.1. Feminist Jurisprudence in A Doll’s House. 70
3.3.2. Masculine Protest in A Doll’s House. 72
3.3.3. Feminism and Disability in A Doll’s House. 74
3.4. Concluding Remarks. 76
Chapter Four: Adlerian Psychoanalytic Feminism in HeddaGabler 78
4.1. Introduction. 78
4.2. Individual Psychology in Hedda Gabler 80
4.2.1. Social Interest in Hedda Gabler 83
4.2.2. Life Style in Hedda Gabler 87
4.2.3. The Final Goal in HeddaGabler 90
4.2.4. Feeling of Inferiority in Hedda Gabler 92
4.2.5. Fictional Finalism and Striving Towards Superiority in Hedda Gabler 94
4.3. Feminist Psychology in Hedda Gabler 96
4.3.1. Feminist Jurisprudence in Hedda Gabler 99
4.3.2. Masculine Protest in Hedda Gabler 100
4.3.3. Feminism and Disability in Hedda Gabler 102
4.4. Concluding Remarks. 104
Chapter Five: Conclusion. 105
5.1. Summing Up. 105
5.2. Findings and Implications. 107
5.3. Suggestions for Further Research. 110
Bibliography. 112
Chapter One: Introduction
1.1. General Overview
Henrik Ibsen (1828-1906) is a Norwegian playwright and poet. He belongs to the school of realism, but he is not afraid to be unrealistic. His works include Brand (1866), Peer Gynt (1867), An Enemy of the People (1882), Emperor and Galilean (1873), A Doll’s House (1879), HeddaGabler (1890), Ghosts (1881), The Wild Duck (1884), Rosmersholm (1886), and The Master Builder (1892).There are melodramatic devices like secret revealing letters. People enter and exit just when Ibsen needs to continue on to the next scene and bring on new opinions. His goal is to interrogate ideas, to deal with individuals, to make characters think about their society rather than presenting photographic reality.
Ibsen tried to incorporate as much prose writing in his plays as possible without losing the story’s focal point. He tried to combine social and psychological problems in realistic contemporary settings of this plays; plays that deal with such problems are called problem plays. During his life, he went through three separate writing periods: Romantic, Social, and Symbolist. His radical views condensed in his plays give an insight into a life meaning.
Ibsen’s themes were similar to those of early Greek plays which focused on a certain issue and questioned the ethical morality of a situation.
Henrik Ibsen prepared A Doll’s House during Christmas. His story of emancipation and defeat takes place during a period associated with cheerfulness and family reunion. The Christian tradition associates Christmas with redemption and hope. Ibsen constructed a story in the tradition of realism to illustrate a different method of deliverance. As a practical method Ibsen preached the liberation of the individual, especially about the woman. He emphasized the principle of heredity. He made many studies of confused minds and analyzed the mutual relationships that of husband and wife harshly.
Nora Helmer is apparently happily married to Torvald. However she had to manage to catch some money for the journey privately and so borrowed it from Krogstad. When the play opens, Nora’s old friend Mrs. Linde, has already arrived in the town to look for a job, and Nora tells her that Torvald gives her a post at the bank. However this means that Krogstad loses his job at the bank. Krogstad in hopelessness goes to Nora and intimidates to tell Torvald about the loan unless he is permitted to keep his post. Torvald understands what has happened, and responds with anger and repugnance. Nora has begun to understand that her marriage is not what she has always thought and in the
course of a dramatic conversation with Torvald she decides that her most important and only task is to go out into the world on her own to live without being afraid to study and learn about herself and society.
HeddaGabler is a play that published in 1890 by Henrik Ibsen. Hedda Tesman is the daughter of General Gabler, who died without leaving her anything. She has a fellowship in the history of art. She has been brought up by his two aunts, Julle, and Rina. At the beginning of the play, Hedda and Jorgen have just returned from a long honeymoon. Jorgen has spent his time working on records whileedda, as she confides to their friend Judge Brack has been bored on her honeymoon. She becomes pregnant, a fact she has so far concealed from her surroundings. Jorgen is met on arrival by the bad news that he is going to have to compete for the chair with one of Hedda’s former admirers, EilertLovborg. The latter is known to be a bohemian, gifted, butone to drinking too much. In recent years, however, he has lived quietly and soberly, and written two theses inspired by and in collaboration with Thea Elvsted.
At the beginning of the play, he has arrived in the city, bringing one of the manuscripts with him. Thea, who is deeply in love with him, has left her husband and followed him. In the course of barely two days, Hedda stages a number of happenings with dramatic consequences. She gets Lovborg to go to a “stag party” at Judge Brack’s and get drunk. During the festivities, he loses the manuscript of his new book. JorgenTesman finds it and gives to Hedda to look after, but Hedda does not tell Lovborg this. Instead, she burns the manuscript and gives him one of her father’s pistols, telling him to shoot himself “beautifully”. Far from this, Lovborg is accidentally shot at a brothel, and Brack, who knows where the pistol came from, uses this knowledge to try to blackmail Hedda into becoming his mistress. Thea and Tesman find close companionship in the work of reconstructing Lovborg’s manuscript on the basis of notes Thea has kept. When Hedda realizes that she is in Brack’s power and has nothing more to live for, she shoots herself with the second of the General’s pistols.
Alfred Adler focuses on the importance of equality in impeding different forms of psychopathology, and supported the development of social interest and democratic family structures for raising child. Adler stated unequivocally that social interest is the criterion of mental health. He based this finding solely on his observations as a psychiatrist that mentally healthy persons feel at home on this earth with all its advantages and disadvantages, and act as true fellowmen; that is, they demonstrate a developed social interest.(Edward Hoffman,The drive for self: Alfred Adler and the founding of individual psychology48).However, Adler was also among the first in the field of psychology to claim in favor of feminism making the dynamics of power between men and women is crucial to understand human psychology. He sustained that human psychology is psychodynamic in nature, yet unlike Freud’s metapsychology, which accentuates instinctual demands, in his theories human psychology is led by goals and fueled by an unknown power. The concept of social interest is in opposition to one’s private interests or concerns. Alfred Adler wrote “We are not determined by our experiences, but are self-determined by the meaning we give to them; and when we take particular experiences as the basis for our future life, we are almost certain to be misguided to some degree. Situations do not determine meanings. We determine ourselves by the meanings we ascribe to situations.” (Alfred Adler, 37)The person’s style of life is the set of personal narratives one has devised in order to co
مسجد و به مثابه آن زیارتگاه ها، عبادتگاه خاص مسلمین است که از زوایای مختلف مورد اشاره کتاب الهی، شارع مقدس اسلام و مرکز توجه مسلمین بوده است. از این رو زیارتگاه ها به عنوان مظاهر عبادتگاه خاص مجتمع های زیستی مسلمین، اهمیت و نقش ویژه ای در کلبد فضایی شهر دارند؛ که از زوایای مختلف قابل بررسی و تحقیق است و نیز در طول تاریخ همواره مورد توجه حاکمان و مردم بوده است.
در تمدن اسلامی، مساجد علاوه بر اینکه عامل اصلی تشکیل شهرها بوده اند، تعیین کننده ی الگوی کلی و هویت مشترک شهرهای اسلامی به شمار می رفته اند (سلطانزاده،11:1362).
در شهر ها و محلات ایران، مساجد به همراه زیار تگاه ها و تكایا، چنان در چشم انداز های فرهنگی موثر واقع می شوند كه در غالب آن ها تنها ساختمان مرتفع شهری این اماكن هستند. همچنین در بافت شهری و محله ای، نقش مسجد آن قدر تعیین كننده و حساس است كه گاهی مسیر اصلی خیابان را از ادامه و تعویض باز می دارد (شكویی، 1354:۴٠۵).
اساس شکل گیری شمار زیادی از شهر های ایرانی، به دلیل نقش مذهبی و وجود کاربری های زیارتی آنهاست از جمله؛ زیارتگاه دانای علی کلان شهر رشت نیز، چنین تاثیری در گسترش شهری داشته است.
از جمله مسایل و مشکلات محله چمارسرا، استقرار نامناسب کاربریها، تراکم زیاد جمعیت، شبکه دسترسی و… می باشد. در تحقیق حاضر ضمن تشریح اهمیت وافر کاربری های مذهبی در شکل گیری با مطالعه موردی زیارتگاه دانای علی در شهر رشت، سعی شده بر تاثیر این کاربری در ناحیه تحت نفوذ آن پرداخته شود همچنین در نهایت راهکارهای پیشنهادی برای توسعه فضایی ناحیه مورد مطالعه ارایه می گردد.
متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان انگلیس
عنوان : An Investigation of the Iranian Foreign Language Teachers’ Knowledge and Performance Based on INTASC Model
Islamic Azad University, Semnan Branch
Faculty of Literature and Humanities
Department of Foreign Languages
A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree of Master of Arts in Teaching English as a Foreign Language
(TEFL)
An Investigation of the Iranian Foreign Language Teachers’ Knowledge and Performance Based on INTASC Model
Supervisor: N. Salehi, Ph D
Semnan-Iran
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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT VI
ABSTRACT 1
LIST OF TABLES 2
CHAPTER 1:Background and Purpose
- Introduction 3
- Teacher Education 4
1.2.1Issues in Teacher Education 4
1.2.2 Teacher Preparation 5
1.2.3 Pre-service Teacher Education
6 1.2.4 In-service Teacher Education
8
1.3 Statement of the Problem 9
1.4 Significance of the Study 10
1.4.1 The Effect of Teachers on the Quality of Education 11
1.4.2 Preparatory Programs 11
1.4.3 The Role of Policy Makers 13
1.4.4 Postmodernism and English Education in Iran 14
1.5 Research Questions 16
1.6Limitations of the Study 17
1.7 Delimitations of the study 17
1.8Definition of Key Terms 18
1.8.1 Teacher Education 18
1.8.2 Knowledge 19
1.8.3 Teacher Performance 19
1.8.4 INTASC Model Standards 20
CHAPTER2: Review of Literature
2.1 Introduction 24
2.2 Schooling in Iran 24
2.3Islamic Philosophy of Education 26
2.4. The Importance of Understanding Educational Philosophies 28
2.5. Components of Teacher Preparation 30
2.6.History: Teacher Education in Iran 33
2.7. Teacher Education in Other Countries 35
2.7.1Evaluation of Teacher Education in Turkey 36
2.7.2Evaluation of Teacher Education in India 37
2.7.3Evaluation of Teacher Education in Pakistan 37
2.8. Issues in the Investigation of Teachers 37
2.8.1 Investigation of Teachers’ Knowledge 40
2.8.2 Investigation of Teachers’ Performance 43
2.8.3 Investigation of Teachers’ Disposition 44
2.8.4 Teacher Effectiveness 44
2.9 Evaluation of English Language Teachers 50
2.10. Globalization 52
2.11Standards and Accountability 53
2.12 Chapter Summary 54
CHAPTER 3 :Methodology
3.1. Overview 55
3.2.Subjects 55
3.3Instrument 57
3.3.1 The teacher’s Knowledge 57
3.3.2 The teacher’s Performance 57
3.4. Procedure 57
3.5. Research Design 58
3.6. Data Analysis 59
3.7Chapter Summary 59
CHAPTER 4 :Results and Discussion
4.1 Overview 60
4.2 Data Analysis 60
4.2.1. Testing the Research Hypotheses 61
4.2.1.1 Hypothesis 1 61
4.2.1.2 Hypothesis 2 63
4.2.1.3 Hypothesis 3 64
4.2.1.4Hypothesis 4 66
4.3 Discussion
4.3.1 Comparing the participants’ responses to knowledge 67
4.3.2 Comparing the participants’ responses to performance 71
4.4 Chapter Summary 75
CHAPTER5 :Conclusion, Pedagogical Implications, and Suggestions for further Research
5.1.Overview 77
5.2Restatement of Findings 77
5.3Conclusions and Discussion 80
5.4 Pedagogical Implications 82
5.5. Suggestions for Further Research 83
REFRENCES 85
APPENDICES 111
ABSTRACT
English teachers need to be well-equipped at both knowledge and performance levels to meet their needs in real teaching practices. This study was conducted to investigate the Iranian foreign language teachers’ knowledge and performance based on INTASC model standards. Two questionnaires (knowledge and performance) were adopted using INTASC (2011) model and used in this study. The participants of this study were 70 EFL Junior high school teachers of Tehran Province that selected randomly. This study investigated the levels of English teachers’ knowledge and performance and also revealed the relationship between teachers’ knowledge and performance, as well as, identifying the teachers’
knowledge could predict their performance. The results indicated the strong and weak points of English teacher education programs in Iran.
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1: Demographic information of the participant………………………………54
Table 4.1: Distribution of English Teachers’ Knowledge Score…………………………59
Table 4.2: Contingency Table for the knowledge Two-Way Chi-Square Analysis …60
Table 4.3: Distribution of English Teachers’ Performance Score……………………61
Table 4.4: Contingency Table for the Performance Two-Way Chi-Square Analysis..62
Table 4.5: Correlation Coefficient of Teachers’ Knowledge and Performance……. . 63
Table 4.6: Model of Regression Teachers’ performance Component…………….. … 64
Table 4.7: Statistics of Item8, 10, and 11………………………….….………………67
Table 4.8: Statistics of Item 29…………………………………..……………..….…..69
Table 4.9: Statistics of Item 14…………………………………….………….….……70
Table 4.10: Statistics of Item 40………………………………………………………72
Table 4.11: Statistics of Item 42…………………………………………..….………73
Table 4.12: Statistics of Item 3…………………………………………….…………74
CHAPTER I
Background and Purpose
1.1 Introduction
English is being treated as a world language because of its vast presence in schools all over the world. Students are being taught that English is an international language. School study is an important phase in students’ life (Kannan, 2009).
Students are the precious assets of any society. Well-being of society depends upon its students because these are the students who will take the responsibility of the success of the society in future and in achieving this goal, teachers play extremely important roles. They are the sources of guidance at many crucial steps in academic life. When teachers are qualified, they can perform their responsibilities with more concentration, devotion, and competence.
At the same time, education is one of the crucial elements in the life of all the human beings. According to Noordin and Jusoff (2009) societal expectations depends upon the successful running of the education system.
All the students around the world deserve qualified teachers. So, “there is a pressing need for education for teachers at all stages in their
careers which aims to prepare or upgrade teachers’ knowledge and skills” (Ballantyne, Sanderman, & Levy, 2008, p.10).
1.2 Teacher Education
The success of the educational system depends upon the involvement, effort, and the contribution of the academic staff or their professional expertise.
1.2.1 Issues in Teacher Education
The major issues that are discussed in teacher education according to Townsend and Bates (2007) are:
- Globalization and diversity,
- Standards and accountability,
- Teacher preparation,
- Teacher induction,
- Continuous development of teachers,
- The reflective practitioner, and
- The impact of technology.
1.2.2 Teacher Preparation
Children make the future of every country and education is a future-oriented business because it aims to prepare the children for the future. So teacher education is even a more future-oriented business because it aims to prepare teachers for future educational purposes of future citizens (Zhao, 2010). Moreover, it is not just preparing any teacher that is important. It is very important to prepare the right teacher, with the right skills for the right situation (Townsend & Bates, 2007).
The term teacher education was traditionally used to mean pre-service teacher preparation before being a teacher and joining the teaching profession (Al-Weher& Abu-Jaber , 2007), but in this study “teacher education” and “pre-service teacher training programs” are used interchangeably.
Darling-Hammond, Wei, and Johnson (2008) demonstrate a relationship between teacher education and teacher effectiveness according to various ines of research. Teacher effectiveness affects student learning, so the importance of teacher preparation and teacher learning would become clear.
Moon, Brown, and Ben-Peretz(2000, p.733) have divided teacher education into three stages:
initial teacher education ( pre-service preparation before entering the classroom as a teacher),beginning teacher induction (the process of providing training and support during the first few years of teaching or the first year in a particular school),and continuing professional development (an in-service process for practicing teachers).
رشد شتابان شهر نشینی در سه دهه گذشته با توان تجهیز فضاهای شهری و گسترش زیر ساختها
متناسب نبوده و مشاغل مولد مورد نیاز را ایجاد نکرده است. از آنجا که توزیع فضایی شهرها و جمعیت کنترل شده در چهارچوب یک برنامه جامع که مبتنی بر هماهنگیهای بخشی و ناحیه ای باشد صورت نگرفته است ، مشکلاتی ناشی از رشد شتابان شهر نشین ابعاد پیچیده ای یافته است. جمعیت بیش از حد شهرها ، مهاجرت بی رویه از روستا به شهر ، ایجاد مناطق پرجمعیت حاشیه نشین ، عدم انسجام و رعایت مسئله همجواری کاربری های مختلف درون شهرها ، عدم دسترسی مناسب به تسهیلات ، جایابی نامناسب کاربری های شهری و………….. معضلاتی است که غالب شهرهای ایران با آن روبرو هستند.(رجبی ، 1391: 125) فضاهای عمومی شهری از اصلی ترین اجزاء ساختار و سازمان فضایی کالبدی شهر و بستر تعاملات اجتماعی هستند. رشد سریع جمعیت ، تحولات کالبدی ناشی از آن ، تاثیر دیدگاههای مدرنیستی و توجه زیاد به سود اقتصادی ، فضاهای شهری را از میان برده و بافت شهری را متراکم تر ساخته است. فضاهای شهری گذشته مثل تکایا ، میادین ، بازار و حمام که محل اجتماع مردم بوده اند تحت تاثیر این تغییرات و دگرگونی معیارها ، ارزشها و سنتها ، دیگر کارایی گذشته خود را ندارند در این میان ایجاد شبکه حمل و نقل زیرزمینی (مترو) ، امکانات و نیازهای تازه ای را با خود به همراه آورده است. نحوه اتصال این شبکه به شبکه راههای پیاده و سواره توسط ایستگاههای مترو و ورودی های آن تعریف می شود این نقاط اتصال یعنی ایستگاهها ، فضاهای جدیدی در درون بافت شهرها هستند که می توان از آنها در ایجاد فضاهای شهری پویا سود جست. تجمع افراد و به دنبال آن پدید آمدن فعالیتها در اطراف این ایستگاههای نوظهور اجتناب ناپذیر است و میتواند بافت پیرامون آن را کاملا دگرگون سازد. ایجاد ایستگاههای مترو بدون توجه به ویژگی های بافت پیرامون و نیازها و امکاناتی که فراهم می آورد ، تهدیدی برای بافت شهری به شمار آمده و بر بی نظمی ها می افزاید(سید زاده خرازی، 1391: 41) ایستگاهتی مترو یکی از مهمترین کاربریها در شهرها میباشند. با توجه به فعالیت هایی که در این فضاها صورت می گیرد ، این فضاها نسبت به سایر کاربری های خدمات شهری از اهمیت قابل توجهی برخوردار می باشند. پایانه ها باید به نحو شایسته ای در سطح شهر مکانیابی گردند . به علت رشد سریع شهر نشینی از یک طرف و نبود یک نظام مدون برنامه ریزی و مدیریت در شهرهای کشور، خدمات شهری با مسائل و مشکلات بی شماری روبه رو شده اند. پایانه های سیستم حمل ونقل شهری که یکی از کاربری های مهم و حیاتی شهر هستند با مشکلاتی درگیر می باشند.(رجبی ، 1391: 125) با توجه به مسائل ذکر شده ، ارزیابی جامع در خصوص برنامه ریزی صحیح به منظور ارتقای کمی و کیفی پایانه ها به عمل خواهد آمد. یکی از عوامل مهم توسعه شهرها ، توسعه حمل و نقل شهری است. ترافیک شهری عامل ایجاد آلودگی های محیط زیستی ناشی از سوخت مواد فسیلی وسایل نقلیه ، آلودگی های آب و هوایی ،آلودگی های صوتی و همچنین عامل مهمی در به وجود آمدن ناراحتی های روحی و روانی در کنار افزایش زمان جابجایی و سفر روزانه برای انجام کارهای روزمره افراد جامعه را به ارمغان می آورد. این علل اهمیت سیستم حمل ونقل عمومی و توسعه بهینه و کاهش مشکلات شهری را برجسته میسازد. تحلیل مکانیابی این پایانه ها ، ارایه نقاط قوت و پتانسیل های این پایانه ها و نقاط منفی این مکانیابی در شناخت صحیح سیستم مترو نقش بسیار موثری خواهد داشت. یکی از مسائل مهم سیستمهای مترو شهرها ، مکانیابی پایانه های این سیستمها می باشد (بهرامی ،1388)
منظره شهر خوب و نظام حمل و نقل مناسب دو روی یک سکه هستند. کیفیت سفرهای رفت و برگشت توقف های و ایستگاه ها تاثیری مستقیم بر کارایی و کیفیت نظام حمل و نقل عمومی دارد. کل سفر از خانه به مقصد و برگشت باید در تمامیت خود دیده شود. مسیرهای پیاده روی و دوچرخه سواری مناسب و تهسیلات مناسب در ایستگاهها در روز و شب برای حصول اطمینان از آسایش و حس امنیت عناصر مهمی هستند( یان گل ، 1936: 106)
یکی از مسائل مهم در برنامه ریزی های شهری تعیین مکان مناسب برای استقرار کاربری های شهری است. به این ترتیب که فعالیتهای مختلف نیازمند فضای مناسب می باشند و امکان استقرار آنها در هر ناحیه شهری وجود ندارد. در این تحقیق با در نظر گرفتن شرایط اجتماعی، اقتصادی؛ ترافیکی و شرایط آب و هوایی ، ارزیابی مکانیابی پایانه های مترو شهر مطالعاتی تبریز مورد بررسی قرار گرفته خواهد شد ، به این ترتیب که تک تک ایستگاه ها از نظر تاثیر آنها بر روی رونق اقتصادی و محیط زیستی و آثار اجتماعی و همچنین اثرگذاری این ایستگاه ها بر کاهش یا افزایش ترافیک محدوده مورد مطالعه قرار خواهد گرفت.
متن کامل پایان نامه مقطع کارشناسی ارشد رشته :زبان انگلیسی
عنوان : Assessment of Soil Genesis in a Salt-Affected Plain for Soil Reclamation and Improvement Strategies in Miandoab Region
Urmia University
Faculty of Agriculture
Department of Soil Sscience
A thesis Submitted for the Degree of Master of Science
In Soil Science
Title:
Assessment of Soil Genesis in a Salt-Affected Plain for Soil Reclamation and Improvement Strategies in Miandoab Region
Supervisor:
Dr. S. Rezapour
Advisor:
N.Ghaemyan
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Abstract
In order to monitoring nature and genetic properties of salt-affected soils under influence of Urmia Lake in Miandoab region, western-Azerbaijan province, seven soil profiles were described, sampled, and analyzed. The significant differences between the soluble values of Cl-1, Na+1, K+1, Mg+2, and Ca+2 at each profiles date indicated clearly a temporal distribution, which can be attributed to other soils properties (e.g., particle-size distribution) and the high soluble salt content of groundwater in the study area. Based on the values of organic carbon (OC), the majority of soil samples were categorized as extremely poor (< 0.6% of OC) and poor (0.6-1.2% of OC) probably due to poor plant growth and low input rates of organic matters. In accordance with the soil texture and the low organic matter content, the cation exchange capacity (CEC) of the soils were rated in low to medium category, ranging 6 to 27 cmol kg-1. The soils indicated some differences in the value of iron oxides and their vertical distribution within the profiles that might related to pedogenic processes, seasonal fluctuations in water table, and repeated cycles of sediment accumulation. The XRD patterns of the clay fraction from all of the soil profiles exhibited a similar composition of phyllosilicate minerals, including illite, smectite, chlorite, vermiculite, and kaolinite. Indeed, the minerals were similar in type but some different were observed in the intensity, position, and peak figure of them (except kaolinite) mainly due to the change in drainage condition and ground water table depth. Suggested management practices to improve of these soils are the combination of physical management, leaching and drainage, the application of elemental S, organic matter, farm manure, mulching, and planting of salt-tolerant crops.
Keywords: salt-affected soils, Soil profile, Drainage condition, Iron oxides, Clay minerals.
Chapter one
Introduction
Salt-affected soils are found on more than half of the earth arable lands. They dominate most arid and semi-arid environments of the world. However they can also be occur in other areas where the climate and mobility of salts cause saline waters and soils for short period of time (Brady and Weil, 1999). Worldwide about one third of the irrigated lands have salt problems.
Salt-affected soils deteriorate as a result of changes in soil reaction (pH) and in the proportions of certain cations and anions present in the soil solution and on the exchangeable sites. These changes lead to osmotic and ion-specific effects as well as to imbalances in plant nutrition, which may range from deficiencies in several nutrients to high levels of sodium (Na+). Such changes have a direct impact on the activities of plant roots and soil microbes, and ultimately on crop growth and yield (Naidu and Rengasamy, 1993; Mengel and Kirkby, 2001).
Salt-affected soils are classified as saline, sodic, and saline-sodic soils. Briefly, saline soils are detoured by high levels of soluble salts, sodic soils have high levels of exchangeable sodium, and saline-sodic soils have high contents of both soluble salts and exchangeable sodium. The parameters determined to describe salt-affected soils depend primarily on the concentrations of soluble salts in the saturation extract (ECe), the soil pH, the sodium adsorption ratio (SAR), and the percentage of exchangeable Na+ of the soil (ESP). Accordingly, saline soils have traditionally been classified as those in which the ECe > 4 dS m-1, pH < 8.5, SAR < 13, and ESP < 15; sodic soils have an ECe < 4 dS m-1, pH > 8.5, SAR > 13, and an ESP > 15%; and saline-sodic soil have an ECe > 4 dS m-1, pH < 8.5, SAR > 13 and an ESP > 15% (Sparks, 2003).
In general, soil salts are mainly chlorides and sulphates of sodium, calcium, magnesium and potassium. Saline soils contain a concentration of these salts sufficient to interfere with the growth of many plants. Salts are commonly brought to the soil surface by evaporating water, creating a white crust, which accounts for the name white alkali that is sometimes used to designate these soils (Mengel and Kirkby, 2001).
Sodic soils are an important category of salt-affected soils that exhibit unique structural problems as a result of certain physical processes (slaking, swelling, and dispersion of clay) and specific conditions (surface crusting and hardsetting) (Qadir and Schubert, 2002). These problems can affect water and air movement, plant available water holding capacity, root penetration, seedling emergence, runoff and erosion, as well as tillage and sowing operations.
As the use of sodic soils for crop production is expected to increase in the near future, the sustainable use of such soils for food and feed production will become a serious issue. However, if mismanaged, the use of sodic soils could aggravate salinity and sodicity problems. Sodic soils are ameliorated by providing a readily available source of calcium (Ca2+), to replace excess Na+ on the cation exchange complex. The displaced Na+ is leached from the root zone through the application of excess irrigation water. This requires adequate amounts of water and an unimpeded flow through the soil profile. Over the past 100 years, several different site-specific approaches—involving the use of chemical amendments, tillage, crop diversification, water, and electrical currents—have been used to ameliorate sodic soils. Of these, chemical amendments have been used most extensively (Oster et al., 1999).
Saline-sodic soils have characteristics intermediate between those of saline and sodic soils. Like saline soils, they contain appreciable levels of natural soluble salts, as shown by ECe levels of more than 4 dS m-1. But they have higher ESP levels (greater than 15) and higher SAR values (at least 13). Crop growth can be adversely affected by both excess salts and excess sodium levels. The physic-chemical conditions of saline-sodic soils are similar to those of saline soils.
The problems of salt-affected soils have serious implications in the semi-arid region where both soil and land were prone to different levels of salinity. Salinity-induced land degradation is a major issue in Iran. In addition, sodicity-induced land degradation and microelement salinity such as boron salinity have been developed in some of its areas. The salinization of land resources in Iran has been the consequence of both naturally occurring phenomena (causing primary or fossil salinity and/or sodicity) and anthropogenic activities (causing secondary salinity and/or sodicity) (FAO, 2000).
In Iran more than 25 million ha (over 15%) from total land have associated with saline and sodic characteristics (Mahler, 1979; Barzgar 2002) and most of the land are found in the Central Plateau, the Khuzestan Plain and the northwest regions of the country.
In western-Azerbaijan province, about 24,500 hectares of the studied land have the quality of salt-affected soils (Samadi, 1963) and the most of these areas are located at the margins of Urmia Lake. In the past, most of these lands were used as natural pasture but in recent years due to the development of cultivation, the use of such land has expanded rapidly for cropping.
In view of the fact that salt-affected soils are very sensitive to degradative aspects, it is essential to first determine the basic characteristics of the soils before improvement any management strategies. To examine this hypothesis, the combination of environmental, morphological, physicochemical, and mineralogical properties was investigated in a salt-affected plain from Miandoab region (with area of 16,503 ha) in western-Azerbaijan province (36° 59’ to 37° 16’ N and 45° 40’ to 46° 0’ E).
The main aims of the research are as following:
- To evaluate the basic characteristics of the examined region using a combination of morphological and physiochemical attributes.
- To determinate the clay mineral types and iron oxides forms as well as their genetics in soils of the region.
- To investigate the potential and limitations soils of the region and provide some data that focus on employing more sustainable management systems for soil reclamation and improvement strategies.
Chapter two
Overviews
2.1 Overview of Salt-Affected Soils
While salinity is often thought of as a soil issue characterized by the accumulation of high total soluble salt concentrations, it encompasses plant responses as well as effects of topically applied saline irrigation water (USDA-ARS, 2008). Thus, “salinity” is not a single stress or problem, but there are four major salinity issues that are the primary problems that require intensive site-specific attention on an individual basis in response to each stress (Qadir and Oster, 2004; Carrow and Duncan, 2010). These four primary salinity stresses are as follows:
- Excessive levels of total soluble salts, that is, total salinity causing salt-induced drought stress.
- Na+ permeability hazard: excessive levels of Na on the soil cation exchange sites (cation exchange capacity or CEC) and precipitated as Na carbonates causing soil structure degradation.
- Ions that are toxic to roots or shoots or may cause other problem ion issues as they accumulate.
- Actual nutrition concentrations, interactions, and imbalances caused by nutrients and other ions in the water or soil.